312DE3bD05flE3^7fl 


OF  FARM 

ANIMALS 


M.  W.  Harper 


LIBRARY 


OF  THE 


MASSACHUSETTS 

AGRICULTURAL 

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MANUAL  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Uhc  IRurai  flDanuais 

* 

Manual 

OF 

Gardening  —  Bailey 

Manual 

OF 

Farm  Animals  —  Harper 

Farm  and  < 

'tArden  Rule-Book  —  Bailey 

Manual 

OF 

Home-Making  —  In  preparation 

Manual 

OF 

Cultivated  Plants  —  In  prepara- 

Hon 

Jersey  head  of  quality,  illustrating  what  has  been  accomplished  by  improved 
methods  of  breeding  and  feeding,  together  with  proper  care  and  manage- 
ment. 


MANUAL 


OF 


FARM    ANIMALS 


A   PRACTICAL   GUIDE 

TO  THE  CHOOSING,  BREEDING,  AND  XEEP 

OF   HORSES,   CATTLE,   SHEEP, 

AND   SWINE 


BY 
MERRITT   W.    HARPER 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR    OF    ANIMAL    HUSBANDRY   IN 

THE  NEW  YORK  STATE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

AT    CORNELL    UNIVERSITY 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1911 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1911, 
By  THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  September,  191 1. 


Norfoooto  $regg 

J.  S.  dishing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

In  America,  raising  farm  animals  does  not  receive  the  recogni- 
tion that  is  accorded  it  in  Europe.  Because  of  this  relative  neg- 
lect, when  in  search  of  animals  with  which  to  improve  our  studs, 
herds  and  flocks,  we  still  look  largely  to  foreign  lands.  Conti- 
nental Europe  provides  us  with  blood  to  improve  our  draft  horses, 
dairy  cattle,  and  fine-wool  sheep,  while  the  British  Isles  furnish 
improved  blood  for  our  beef  cattle,  mutton  sheep,  bacon  swine,  as 
well  as  for  horses,  both  light  and  heavy,  and  for  dairy  cattle. 

A  comparison  of  European  methods  with  those  employed  in 
America  reveals  the  fact  that  our  methods  are  lacking  and  en- 
tirely inadequate  to  produce  the  greatest  improvement.  The 
live-stock  farmers  of  Europe  exercise  much  careful  judgment  in 
choosing  their  animals,  in  feeding,  in  breeding,  and  in  the  care 
and  management.  It  has  been  with  a  view  of  aiding  to  promote 
such  interest  in  the  daily  work  with  farm  animals  that  this 
volume  is  written.  This  has  been  done  with  the  thought  that 
increased  interest  will  lead  to  improved  care,  which  in  time,  it 
is  hoped,  will  produce  a  better  and  more  useful  class  of  farm 
live-stock.  It  is  well  recognized  that  a  good  animal  husbandry 
lies  at  the  bottom  of  a  good  agriculture. 

Erom  the  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  author's  purpose  is 
to  discuss  the  general  care  and  management  of  farm  animals 
rather  than  the  breeds.  However,  a  knowledge  of  the  breeds  is 
necessary.  To  economize  space  and  the  reader's  time,  the  writer 
has  adopted  the  method  of  freely  inserting  pictures  of  good 
animals  of  many  breeds,  with  liberal  legends,  letting  them  run 
as  a  minor  motive  throughout  the  book.  By  this  plan  it  is  hoped 
that  some  of  the  main  characteristics  of  the  breeds  may  be  taken 
away  by  the  reader  with  little  effort  on  his  part. 


vi  PREFACE 

In  a  book  of  this  range,  many  kinds  of  advice  must  be  given. 
This  advice  may  not  all  be  of  equal  value,  even  though  it  be  the 
product  of  actual  experience.  The  author  gives  it  for  what  it  is 
worth,  and  it  is  the  responsibility  of  the  reader  to  apply  it  and 
to  work  it  out  as  best  he  can.  In  the  discussion  of  diseases,  par- 
ticularly, it  is  very  difficult  to  give  formal  advice  that  will  apply 
to  all  cases ;  and  the  statements  are  meant  to  be  used  as  guides 
and  suggestions  and  not  as  "  doctor  book  "  prescriptions  or  as 
substitutes  for  the  help  of  a  trained  veterinarian.  It  is  hoped 
that  by  calling  attention  to  the  diseases  and  ailments,  the  reader 
will  see  the  importance  of  securing  reliable  aid  when  the  subject 
is  beyond  his  knowledge  or  skill. 

The  book  is  a  manual,  and  therefore  it  considers  the  common 
practical  matters  in  much  detail.  No  doubt  much  information 
which  we  now  accept  in  the  breeding  and  feeding  of  animals  is 
very  imperfect ;  but  the  writer  has  tried  to  discuss  the  daily 
handling  of  farm  live-stock  in  the  light  of  such  knowledge  as 
is  at  present  best  accepted  and   most  capable  of  application. 

Recognizing  the  importance  of  such  a  work,  the  writer  will  be 

glad  to  correspond  with  those  into  whose  hands  the  book  may 

fall,  concerning  difficulties  in  the  management  of  animals,  and 

also  to  receive  suggestions  that  will  make  future  editions  of  the 

Manual — if  such  should  be  called  for  —  more  useful  as  a  practical 

guide  in  raising  farm  animals. 

M.    W.    HARPER. 
Ithaca,  N.Y., 

June  7,  1911. 


CONTENTS 


PART   I  — HORSES 


CHAPTER   I 

Choosing  a  Horse — Judging 

General  Examination  of  the  Horse 
Examination  in  the  stable 
Examination  in  action  . 
How  to  estimate  the  Age  of  a  Horse 
General  considerations  . 
Examination  of  the  teeth 

Colt  —  Three  years  old  —  Four  years  old  —  Five  years  old  — 
Six  years  old  —  Seven  years  old — Eight  years  old  —  Nine 
years  old  —  Ten  years  old  —  Eleven  years  old  —  Aged 
horses. 

Irregularities  in  the  teeth 

Detecting  Unsoundness 

A  blemish      ............ 

An  unsoundness    .......... 

Decayed  and  broken  teeth  —  Discharge  from  the  nostrils  — 
Impaired  vision  —  Defective  hearing — Poll-evil  —  Sweenied 
shoulders  —  Fistulse  —  Capped  elbow  —  Unsound  knees  — 
Splints  —  Ring-bone  —  Side-bone  —  Scratches  —  Unsound 
hoofs  —  Thoroughpin  —  Spavin  —  Stringhalt  —  Curb  — 
Forging  and  overreaching  —  Interfering  —  Locating  lame- 
ness—  Unsound  in  wind. 
Types  of  Horses  .... 

The  light  type        .... 

Heavy  type 

Choosing  a  Light  Horse 

General  appearance  in  light  horses 

Form  —  Action  —  Quality  —  Temperament. 
Detail  characters  of  a  light  horse  ...... 

Head  —  Neck  —  Chest  —  Shoulders  —  Arms  —  Elbows  —  Fore 

vii 


PAGES 

3-36 
5 
5 

6 

7 
7 


13 
14 
14 
14 


19 
20 
20 
20 
21 

23 


viil  CONTENTS 

PAGES 

arms  —  Knees  —  Cannons  —  Fetlock  —  Pasterns  —  Feet  — 
Ribs  —  Body  —  Loin  —  Croup  —  Thigh  —  Hind  legs —  Hocks 
—  Hind  cannons  —  Hind  pasterns  —  Hind  feet. 

Choosing  a  Heavy  Horse "  .        .29 

General  appearance  in  heavy  horses 29 

The  form  —  The  weight  —  The  action  —  Quality. 

Detail  characters  of  heavy  horses 33 

Head  —  Neck  —  Chest  —  Shoulders  —  Arm  —  Fore-arms  — 
Knees  —  Cannon  —  Pasterns  —  Feet  —  Body  —  Croup  — 
Thighs  —  Hock. 

CHAPTER   II 

The  Feeding  op  Animals  —  General  Consideration        .         .  37-55 

Food .  37 

Use  of  food 37 

Composition  of  food 38 

Water  —  Ash  —  Protein  —  Carbohydrates  —  Fat. 

Function  of  various  food  materials 41 

Water  —  Ash  —  Protein  —  Carbohydrates  —  Fat. 

Digestibility  of  Food 44 

Digestion       . 44 

Size  of  digestive  organs 45 

Digestible  nutrients 46 

Conditions  Influencing  Digestion        .....         ...  48 

Palatability 48 

Time  of  harvesting  —  Grinding  the  food  —  Curing  food  — 
Various  processes. 

Maintenance  Rations  and  Productive  Rations    .....  50 

Maintenance  rations 50 

Productive  rations .    .         .50 

Feeding  standards  for  farm  animals 51 

Balanced  Ration 51 

Nutritive  ratio 52 

Method  of  calculating    .                  52 

Other  methods  of  computing  rations 54 

Using  balanced  rations 55 

CHAPTER   III 

The  Feeding  of  Horses 56-69 

Food  Requirements  for  Work 56 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAGES 

Regularity  in  feeding    . 57 

Order  of  supplying  food 57 

Watering  the  horse 50 

Feeding  the  Work  Horse 60 

Feeding  the  Driving  Horse 63 

Wintering  the  Idle  Horse 64 

Feeding  the  Brood  Mare     .                  65 

Feeding  Mules 67 

Sample  Rations  for  the  Horse 68 

CHAPTER   IV 
The  Breeding  of  Animals  in  General      .....  70-95 

Like  produces  like          .        .         . 71 

Variation  is  the  Basis  of  Improvement       ......  72 

Variation  universal  among  farm  animals       .         .         .  72 

Kinds  of  variation          .         ....         .        .  73 

Proximate  Causes  of  Variation  ........  75 

Environment  —  Climate  —  Food  supply  —  Care  —  Crossing. 

Selection 77 

Individual  merit  —  Pedigree  —  Mating. 

Heredity                       ......                  ...  83 

Inheritance  of  disease — Prepotency  —  Prolificacy  or  Fecundity 
—  Sterility  —  Relative  influence  of  parents. 

Systems  of  Breeding  .         ...         ...         ...  89 

Grading  —  Crossing  —  Line-breeding  —  In-breeding  —  Breeding 
from  the  best. 

CHAPTER   V 

The  Breeding  of  Horses  and  Mules         .....        96-126 

Plan  of  Breeding 96 

•  Cooperative  breeding 98 

Securing  stallions  . 98 

Selecting  Breeding  Stock 99 

The  breed  and  type — Uniformity  —  Soundness. 

The  Stallion 102 

The  Mare 103 

Season  of  the  year  to  breed  ........  164 

When  mares  should  be  tried 167 

Barrenness  in  mares 169 

Abortion  in  mares  .        .        .         .         .        •         •         •        .116 

Parturition  time    ......         .o.         .  116 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGES 

The  mare  and  the  young  foal 112 

The  Foal 113 

Ills  of  the  young  foal 115 

Constipation  —  Diarrhea  or  scours  —  Nave'v  infection. 

Feeding  the  young  foal .118 

Weaning  the  young  foal         . .110 

Breeding  Jacks,  Jennets,  and  Mules  .         .         »         .         .         .         .121 

Jacks  and  jennets  ..........     121 

Mules  and  hinnies 124 

CHAPTER   VI 

Care  and  Management  or  Horses 127-150 

Grooming   ............     127 

Care  of  the  Horse's  Teeth 128 

Clipping 128 

Bedding  the  Horse 120 

Blankets 130 

Stable  blankets — Outdoor  blankets. 

Care  of  the  Feet 131 

Shoeing. 

Training  the  Colt 132 

Training  to  the  halter  —  Training  to  the  uses  of  the  bit  —  Im- 
portance of  a  good  mouth  —  Bitting  the  colt  —  Harnessing  the 
colt  —  Hitching  double  —  Hitching  single  —  Training  to  mount. 

Harness  and  Harnessing .         .         .141 

The  bit  and  the  bridle  —  The  bit  —  Head-stall  —  Blinds  —  Center- 
pieces, ear-bobs,  and  tassels  —  The  check-rein  —  Fitting  the 
collar —  Adjusting  the  hame-tug  —  Breast  harness  —  Fitting 
the  back-band  and  crupper  —  Fly-nets  —  Caring  for  harness  — 
Harness  room. 

CHAPTER   VII 

Diseases  of  the  Horse         ........      151-181 

Treating  Sick  Horses  ..........     151 

Administering  Medicine      .........     154 

Drenching —  Hypodermic   Medication  —  External  medication  — 
Enemas   or  injections   into  the  rectum  —  Counter-irritants  — 
Blisters  —  Firing. 
Lameness ;  its  Cause  and  Treatment  .  158 


CONTENTS 


XI 


PAGES 

Lameness  due  to  ailments  of  the  bones         .....     158 

Splints,   ring-bones,   side-bones,  bone  spavin,  and  bony  en- 
largements —  Fracture. 
Lameness  due  to  ailments  of  the  joints  .....     160 

Wind-galls,  blood-spavin,  bog-spavin,  and  thoroughpin. 
Lameness  due  to  ailments  of  muscles  and  tendons        .         .         .     161 
Sprains  —  Shoulder     lameness  —  Sweeny     shoulder  —  Sore 
shoulder  and  neck,  and  galls  —  Curb. 
Lameness  due  to  capped-elbows  or  shoe-boils        ....     164 

Capped-elbows  —  Capped-knee  —  Capped-hock  —  Shoe-boil. 
Lameness  due  to  ailments  of  the  foot    ......     165 

Interfering  —  Overreaching  —  Calk   wounds  —  Corns  —  Punc- 
tured wounds  of  the  foot  —  Cracked  hoofs. 

Diseases  of  the  Legs 168 

Scratches  —  Mud  fever  —  Eczema. 

Diseases  of  the  Digestive  Organs .     169 

Ailments  of  the  Mouth  .........     169 

Sore  mouth  —  Abnormal  and  diseased  teeth  —  Lampas. 
Ailments  of  the  throat  and  gullet  .         .         .         .         .         .         .170 

Choking. 
Ailments  of  the  stomach  and  intestines         .         .         .         .         .171 

Indigestion  —  Colic  —  Diarrhea  or  scouring  —  Constipation. 

Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  Organs    .  174 

Catarrh  —  Heaves,  broken  wind,  asthma  —  Roaring,   whistling, 
thick  wind. 
Miscellaneous  Diseases        .........     177 

Wounds  —  Distemper  —  Influenza  —  Azoturia  —  Foul  sheath  — 
Diseases  of  the  eye. 


PART   II  — CATTLE 


CHAPTER   VIII 


Choosing  Cattle  —  Judging 

Types  of  Cattle  .... 

The  dairy  type 

The  beef  type 
How  to  estimate  the  Age  of  a  Cow 

General  examination 

Examination  of  the  teeth 


185-202 
185 
186 
186 
187 
187 
187 


Xll 


CONTENTS 


Examination  of  the  horns      .         .         .         .         . 
Choosing  a  Dairy  Cow        ......... 

General  consideration  in  dairy  cows 

Form  —  Quality  —  Constitution  —  Temperament. 
Detail  characters  of  a  dairy  cow  ....... 

Head  —  Neck  —  Fore-quarters  —  Body  —  Hind-quarters  — 
Udder  —  Milk-veins  —  Milk  signs.      , 
Choosing  Beef  Cattle  ......... 

General  characteristics  of  beef  cattle 

Form  of  the  feeder  —  Quality  of  the  feeder  —  Condition  of  the 
feeder  —  Uniformity  among  feeders. 
Detail  characters  of  beef  cattle      ....... 

Head  —  Neck  —  Fore-quarters  —  Body  —  Hind-quarters  —  Fat 
steer. 


189 
189 
190 

194 


198 
199 


200 


CHAPTER   IX 


Feeding  Dairy  Cattle 203-226 

Food  Requirements  for  Milk      .         .         .         .         .         .         ■     .    ■     203 

Haecker  Feeding-standard  —  Mature  Cow 206 

Haecker  Feeding-standard  —  Heifers .......     209 

Feeding-standards  mere  guides 210 

Effect  of  Food  on  Composition  of  Milk       ......     210 

Effect  of  food  on  total  solids  —  Effect  of  food  on  the  percentage 
of  fat  —  Food  and  flavor  of  milk  —  Order  of  supplying  food  — 
Effect  of  food  on  quantity  of  milk. 

Watering  the  Milking  Cow 213 

Feeding  the  Milking  Cow 214 

Summer  feeding  of  dairy  cattle  —  Protecting  cows  from  flies  — 
Winter  feeding  of  dairy  cattle  —  Grain  or  concentrated  feeds 

—  Dry  forage — Succulent  feeds  —  Silage  —  Roots  and  tubers 

—  Soiling. 

Feeding  for  High  Production     ........     222 

Feeding  the  Heifer 223 

Sample  Rations  for  the  Dairy  Cow 224 


CHAPTER   X 


Breeding  Dairy  Cattle        ...         ... 

Milk-records 

Method  of  keeping  records  —  Value  of  milk-records. 


227-256 
.     229 


CONTENTS 


xm 


Testing  Milk  for  Butter  Fat 

Sampling  the  milk  —  Using  the  acid  —  Whirling  the  bottles  — 
Reading  the  percentage  of  fat. 
Testing  Associations 

General  plan 

Records  of  Preformance  and  of  Breeding 

The  individual  animal  the  unit  of  improvement    .         .         .    •     . 
Plan  of  Breeding 

Raise  the  heifer  calves  from  the  best  cows —  Cooperative  breeding. 

Forming  the  Dairy  Herd 

Grading-up  the  Herd  .......... 

The  first  generation  —  Select  heifer  calves  from  the  high-produc- 
ing dams  —  The  second  generation  —  Continued  judicious  selec- 
tion the  means  of  improvement. 
The  Dairy  Bull 

Choosing  a  dairy  bull  —  Uniformity  of  get  —  Number  of  cows  to 
the  bull. 
The  Dairy  Cow  .... 

Productive  period  in  dairy  cattle 

Season  of  the  year  to  breed  . 

Parturition  time     . 
The  Calf 

Feeding  the  dairy  calf  . 

Removing  horns  from  young  calves 

Castrating  the  male  calf 


PAGES 

232 


235 
235 
236 
237 
237 


238 
239 


244 


246 
246 
247 

248 
250 
251 
255 
255 


Utensils —  Milking. 


CHAPTER   XI 

Care  and  Management  of  Dairy  Cattle 
Sanitary  Milk  Production  .... 

The  cow  —  The  stables  —  Milk-house 
Milking  Machines       .... 
Management  of  the  Bull     . 

Ringing  the  bull     .... 

The  Dairy  Barn 

Light  in  abundance  should  enter  the  dairy  barn  —  Ventilation 
essential  to  health  —  Floors  are  best  made  of  cement — Water- 
ing device. 

The  Silo 270 

The  size  of  the  silo — Filling  the  silo .271 


257-274 

.  257 

.  260 

.  263 

.  264 

.  264 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   XII 


PAGES 

275-304 
.     275 


Feeding  Beef  Cattle  . 

Essentials  of  Feeding  Cattle 

Age  at  which  to  feed  cattle 

Form  for  feeding  cattle 

Condition  of  feeding  cattle 

Quality  of  feeding  cattle 

Uniformity  in  feeding  cattle 
Food  Requirements  for  Beef 
Wintering  Stockers  and  Feeders 

Roughage  increases  feeding  capacity 
Summer  Feeding  on  Pasture 

How  to  turn  to  grass  —  Feeding  grain  to  cattle  on  pasture  —  The 
pastures. 
Winter  Feeding  in  Dry -lot 

Feeding  gram  to  cattle  in  dry-lot. 
Baby-beef  ............ 

Cattle   used   in   baby-beef   production  —  Feeding  for   baby-beef 
production  —  Advantages  of  baby-beef  production  — Disadvan- 
tages of  baby-beef  production. 
Feeding  Cattle  for  the  Local  Market 
Hogs  following  Grain-fed  Cattle 
Getting  Cattle  "  On  Feed  " 
Length  of  Feeding  Period  . 
Marketable  Condition 

When  to  market  cattle. 
Shipping  Cattle 299 

Preparing   cattle   for   shipment  —  Drifting    cattle   for    the   local 
market. 
Sample  Rations  for  Fattening  Cattle  .         . 300 


276 
277 
278 
279 
280 
281 
282 
284 
284 


289 


291 


293 

295 
296 
297 
297 


CHAPTER   XIII 

Breeding  Beef  Cattle         .... 
Plan  of  Breeding         .... 

Cooperative  grading-up 

Raise  heifer  calves  from  best  cows 
Selection  of  Breeding  Stock 

The  breed  —  Crossing  —  The  dual-purpose  cow — Uniformity 
The  Beef  Bull 

The  cost  of  a  bull. 


305-319 
.  307 
.  307 
.  307 
.  308 

.  311 


CONTEXTS  XV 

PAGES 

The  Beef  Cow 313 

Production-period  in  cattle  —  Season  of  the  year  to  breed  —  The 
pregnant  cow  —  Cow  with  calf  at  foot  —  Weaning  —  Feeding 
the  beef  calf. 

CHAPTER   XIV 

Care  and  Management  of  Beef  Cattle 320-330 

Farms  for  Fattening  Cattle 322 

Equipment  for  Summer  Feeding 322 

Pasture  —  Feed-bunk  —  The  self-feeder  —  Shade  —  Water — Salt. 

Equipment  for  Winter  Feeding 326 

Shelter  for  winter  feeding  —  The  feed  lot  —  Platform  for  feed- 
bunks  —  Dry-forage-rack  —  Water-tanks. 

CHAPTER  XV 
Diseases  of  Cattle 331-355 

Diseases  of  the  Generative  Organs,  and  Difficulties  of  Parturition     .  331 

Barrenness  in  cows        .........  332 

Abortion  in  cows 332 

Difficult  parturition 334 

Retained  afterbirth 336 

Eversion  of  the  womb 338 

Milk-fever 338 

Garget 340 

Ills  of  the  Young  Calf 340 

Constipation 341 

Diarrhea  or  scours 341 

Tuberculosis 343 

Methods  of  infection 343 

The  tuberculin  test        .         .         . 345 

The  testing  outfit 345 

Directions  for  making  the  test "      ..  346 

Retesting 349 

Tuberculin  not  infallible 349 

Prevention  of  tuberculosis 349 

Eradication  of  tuberculosis    ........  350 

Bloating  in  Cattle 351 

Impaction  of  the  Rumen 353 

Cattle  off  feed. 

Dehorning 354 

Vices  of  Dairy  Cattle  . .  354 

Kicking  cows  —  Sucking  cow. 


XVI  CONTENTS 

PART    III  — SHEEP 
CHAPTER   XVI 

PAGKS 

Choosing  and  Judging  Sheep 359-376 

Catching  and  Holding  Sheep 360 

How  to  estimate  Age  of  Sheep 361 

Examination  of  the  teeth 362 

Types  of  Sheep 263 

The  fine-wool  type 363 

The  mntton  type 365 

Choosing  Sheep 365 

General  appearance 366 

Form  —  Condition    and    weight  —  Quality  —  Constitutional 
vigor  —  Uniformity. 
Detail  characters  of  sheep     ........     368 

Head  —  Neck  —  Shoulders  —  Chest  —  Body  —  Rump  —  Leg  of 
mutton. 
Examining  the  fleece     .........     372 

Quantity  of  fleece  —  Density  —  Length  —  Quality  of  fleece  — 
Softness  —  Crimp  —  Soundness  —  Condition  of  fleece  — 
Purity  —  Luster  —  Brightness  —  Yolk  —  Summary. 

CHAPTER   XVII 

Feeding  Sheep 377-402 

Food  Requirement  of  Sheep        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     370 

Feeding  the  Flock 380 

The  flock  in  summer     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .381 

Pasture  for  sheep — Turning  to  pasture  —  Tagging  the  sheep 
—  Change  in  pasture  —  Providing  shade  —  The  use  of  sown 
pasture. 

The  flock  in  winter 386 

The  winter  ration  —  Exercise  —  Care  of  feet  —  Bedding. 

Fattening  Sheep 388 

Growing  winter  lambs  ......         ...     388 

Foundation  stock  —  Winter  quarters  for  winter-lamb  produc- 
tion—  Feeding  the  lambs  —  Dressing  winter-lambs. 
Growing  spring  lambs   .........     396 

Feeding  lambs  for  fall 396 

Getting  the  lambs  on  full  feed. 


CONTENTS  xvii 

PAGKS 

Fattening  lambs  in  winter     .  398 

Feeding  in  the  semiarid  West  —  Feeding  in  the  corn-belt  — 
Feeding  in  the  East. 
Sample  Rations  for  Fattening  Sheep  .......     401 

CHAPTER   XVIII 

The  Breeding  of  Sheep       ........      403-421 

Plan  of  Breeding 404 

Choosing  Breeding  Stock s  404 

Type —  Uniformity. 

The  ram 406 

The  ewe  flock 406 

The  Breeding  of  the  Ewes 407 

Productive  period  —  Season  to  breed  —  Method  of  mating  — 
Managing  the  ram — The  pregnant  ewe  —  Lambing  time  — 
Difficult  parturition. 

The  Lambs 413 

The  first  meal  —  A  chilled  lamb  —  A  disowned  lamb. 

Lamb  ills 416 

Constipation  —  Diarrhea  —  "  Pinning  "  —  Sore  mouth  —  Sore 
eyes. 

General  care  of  lambs 417 

Feeding  the  lambs  —  Weaning  the  lambs  —  Castrating  male 
lambs  —  Docking  the  lambs  —  Marking  lambs. 

CHAPTER   XIX 

Care  and  Management  or  Sheep        ......      422-438 

Dipping  Sheep .     423 

Importance  of  dipping  —  The  dipping  vat  —  How  dips  are  used  — 
Frequency  of  dipping. 

Shearing  Sheep 427 

Washing  sheep  —  When   to  shear  — Hand  shearing  —  Machine 
shearing  —  Tying  the  wool. 
Practical  Sheep  Barns         .........     433 

The  feed-racks  —  Quantity  of  bedding  —  The  sheep  lot. 

CHAPTER   XX 

Diseases  of  Sheep 439-450 

Treating  Sick  Sheep 439 


XVlll  CONTENTS 

PAGES 

External  Parasites 440 

Internal  Parasites 440 

The  stomach- worm  —  The  tape- worm. 
Digestive  Disorders    . 446 

Bloating  —  Constipation  —  Disorders  caused  by  overfeeding. 
Other  Diseases 448 

Caked  udder  —  Garsret. 


PAET   IV— SWINE 

CHAPTER   XXI 

Choosing  and  Judging  Swine 453-466 

Types  of  Swine 453 

The  lard  type 453 

The  bacon  type 454 

Age  of  Swine 454 

Choosing  Lard  Hogs 455 

General  appearance  of  lard  hogs   .......     456 

General  form — Weight  and  condition  —  Quality  —  Constitu- 
tion —  Uniformity. 
Detail  characters  of  lard  hogs        .......     459 

Head  —  Jowls  —  Neck  —  Shoulders  —  Back  and  loin  —  Sides 
—  Belly  —  Hips  —  Rump  —  Hams  —  Legs. 

Choosing  Bacon  Hogs 464 

Condition — Form  —  Shoulders  —  Sides  —  Hams. 

CHAPTER   XXII 

The  Feeding  of  Swine         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .      467-486 

Food  Requirements  for  Swine 468 

Preparing  Food 469 

Grinding  feed  —  Soaking  the  feed  —  Cooking  the  feed. 

Making  up  a  Ration 470 

Feeding  capacity  among  swine  —  Giving  swine  their  feed  —  Salt 
—  Fresh  cool  water. 
Feeding  the  Breeding  Herd         .         .        .         .  .         .         .     472 

Feeding  the  herd  in  summer  .......     472 

Ringing  to  prevent  rooting  —  Pasture  for  swine — Roots  for 
swine  —  Pumpkins  and  squashes. 


CONTENTS 


XIX 


Feeding  the  herd  in  winter    . 

Feeding  the  young  and  old  herd. 
Fattening  Swine  .... 

Feeding  the  lard  hog     . 

Feeding  the  lard  hog  in  summer 
Feeding  the  lard  hog  in  winter 

Feeding  the  bacon  hog  . 

Summer  feeding  on  pasture 
Winter  feeding  in  dry-lot 
Sample  Rations  for  Swine  . 


PAGES 

477 

478 
479 

479 

481 
483 

484 
484 
485 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

The  Breeding  of  Swine 487-502 

Plan  of  Breeding 487 

Cooperative  breeding. 

Selecting  Breeding  Stock 489 

The  type  —  Uniformity. 

The  Boar 490 

The  Sows •     .     491 

Productive  period  —  Season  to  breed  —  Method  of  mating  —  The 
pregnant  sow  —  Farrowing  time  —  The  brood  sow  eating  her 
pigs  —  The  sow  after  farrowing. 

The  Pigs 498 

The  first  meal  —  Pig  ills — Feeding  the  pigs  —  Weaning  the  pigs 
—  Castrating  pigs  —  Marking  pigs  —  Pigs  after  weaning.  . 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

Care  and  Management         .  503-509 

Dipping  Swine     ...........     503 

Shelter  for  Swine 504 

The  large  hog-house  —  The  individual  hog-house  —  The  A-shaped 
individual  hog-house  —  The  shed-shaped  individual  hog-house 
—  Disadvantages  and  advantages. 

The  Hog  Lot 509 

Hog- wallows. 

CHAPTER   XXV 

Diseases  of  Swine 510-524 

Quarantine  lot r    510 


XX  CONTENTS 

PAGES 

Hog  Cholera 511 

Manner  of  spreading  the  disease  —  Prevention  of  the  disease  — 
Prevention  of  hog  cholera  by  immunization  —  Objections  to  the 
serum  method. 

Swine  Plague 517 

Tuberculosis       ...........  517 

Manner  of  spreading  the  disease  —  Care  of  a  tubercular  herd. 

Worms .519 

Prevention  of  worms  —  Treatment  for  worms. 

Lice 520 

Scours 521 

Constipation 521 

Thumps 522 

Sore  Mouth 522 

Garget 523 

Removing  the  Tusks 523 

Chicken-eating  Swine          .........  524 

APPENDIX 

Average  Weights  of  Feeding  Stuffs        ......  525 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  Feeding  Stuffs           .....  526 


LIST    OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Jersey  Head Frontispiece 

Arab  Stallion  ;t  Shah  wan ''      .........         6 

Lower  Front  Teeth  of  Horse  at  Three  Years  of  Age        ....       10 

Lower  Front  Teeth  of  Horse  at  Four  Years  of  Age         .         .        .         .10 

Lower  Front  Teeth  at  Five  Years  of  Age 10 

Front  View  of  Five-year-old  Mouth 10 

Side  View  of  Five-year-old  Mouth 10 

Lower  Front  Teeth  at  Six  Years  of  Age 10 

Lower  Front  Teeth  at  Seven  Years  of  Age 10 

Lower  Front  Teeth  at  Eight  Years  of  Age 12 

Upper  Front  Teeth  at  Nine  Years  of  Age .12 

Upper  Front  Teeth  at  Ten  Years  of  Age  ......       12 

Upper  Front  Teeth  at  Eleven  Years  of  Age     ......       12 

Upper  Front  Teeth  at  Fifteen  Years  of  Age 12 

Upper  Front  Teeth  at  Twenty-one  Years  of  Age     .         .         .         .         .12 

Side  View  of  Twenty-one-year-old  Mouth 13 

Front  View  of  Twenty-one-year-old  Mouth 13 

Upper  Front  Teeth  of  Horse  at  Thirty  Years  of  Age       ....       13 

Imported  Percheron  Stallion  "  Carnot  " 15 

First  Prize  Percheron  Stallions .17 

Percheron  Stallion  il  Coco  " 18 

Hackney  Coach  Team 22 

An  American  Trotter      . 24 

Clydesdale  Stallion  "  Calipt" 30 

Clydesdale  Mare 32 

Champion  English  Shire  Stallion  "  Dan  Patch  " 35 

Champion  English  Shire  Stallion '•  Mazemore  Harold"  ...       40 

"  Wrydelands  Sunshine,"  Champion  English  Shire  Mare       .         .         .45 

"  Wrydelands  Starlight,"  English  Shire  Mare 55 

Belgian  Stallion  "  Robuste  de  Thiensies 58 

Imported  Belgian  Stallion 61 

Farm  Team  of  Grade  Belgians 62 


xxi 


XX11 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Driving  Team  of  Spirit  and  Good  Form 

Black  Percheron  Gelding 

Pair  Well-bred  Mules 

Suffolk  Stallion  "  Rendleshau  Scorcer" 

Suffolk  Mare  "  Bawdsey  Pearl  "      . 

Plackney  Coach  Stallion  "Foundation  " 

Hackney  Stallion  "Fandango  M"  . 

"  Decorateur,"  French  Coach  Stallion 

French  Coach  Stallion,  five  years  old 

Morgan  Stallion  "General  Gates"  . 

"  Carolina,"  American  Saddler 

Group  of  Percheron  Mares 

Percheron  Mare  "Princess"  and  Four  of  her 

Cross-bred  Coach  and  American  Trotter 

Arab  Horse  as  a  Polo  Pony     . 

Group  of  French  Draft  Horses 

Hackney  Coach  Mare  and  Foal 

Shetland  Pony  Team 

Champion  Jack  "  General  "Wood  ' 

Catalonian  Jack 

Pair  Two-year-old  Jacks 

Pair  of  Premium  Mules   . 

Method  of  catching  Young  Foal 

Method  of  teaching  Young  Foal  to  Drive 

Arrangement  of  "Bitting  Harness" 

Colt  Hitched  for  First  Time     . 

Harness  for  controlling  Vicious  Horses 

Types  of  Collars      .... 

Polo  Pony  of  Good  Form         .      '  . 

Thoroughbred  Running  Horse 

Standard  Bred  Carriage  Stallion  "Carmon" 

American  Trotting  Bred  Carriage  Horse 

Hackney  Mare  "Kitty  Grey"  in  Action 

Jersey  Cow  "  Tormentor's  Lass"    . 

Angus  Steer 

Cow's  Teeth  arranged  according  to  Age 
Guernsey  Cow  "Dolly  Dimple" 
Guernsey  Cow  "  Imported  Hayes  Rosie  " 
Guernsey  Bull  "  Yeoman  "      , 
Holstein-Friesian  Bull  "  King  Segis" 


Colts 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xxiii 

PAGE 

Holstein-Friesian  Cow  "Dichter  Calamity" 208 

Interior  View  of  Dairy  Barn '  .         .         .         .  214 

Holstein-Friesian  Cow  "  Daisy  Pauline  Paul  2d  " 216 

Holstein-Friesian  Cow  "Betty  Lyons  Netherland  "          .         .         .         .  224 

Ayrshire  Cow  ............  228 

Apparatus  for  testing  Milk  and  keeping  Records 234 

Jersey  Bull  "  Hood  Farm  Torono " 245 

Jersey  Cow  "  Jacoba  Irene  " 250 

Imported  Brown  Swiss  Bull 2-52 

Brown  Swiss  Cow  "  Vogel"    .........  258 

Device  for  Cooling  Milk. 259 

Dutch  Belted  Bull  "  Auten  "  . 262 

Dairy  Barn 265 

Interior  View  of  Dairy  Barn  showing  Feed-carrier                   .         .         .  267 

Interior  View  of  Dairy  Barn  showing  Litter-carrier         ....  269 

Dutch  Belted  Cow  "  Echo  2  " 271 

Silo  in  Process  of  Construction  by  Farm  Labor       .                  ...  273 

Shorthorn  Bull  "  Avondale  " 277 

Prize  Winning  Shorthorn  Bull         ........  281 

Fattening  Steers  on  Pasture 288 

Steer  that  made  Large  Gains 294 

Aberdeen  Angus  Bull 298 

Hereford  Cow .  306 

Champion  Hereford  Bull  "  Dale  " 308 

The  Shorthorn  Cow  "  Rose  of  Glenside  " 310 

Galloway  Bull .  312 

Galloway  Heifers ^    .  313 

Feeding  Grain  to  Steers  on  Pasture          . 324 

Red  Polled  Bull  "Cremo"      .........  329 

Red  Polled  Herd 337 

Devon  Bull  "Darks  Majesty  " 344 

Devon  Herd  ;  "  Sally  "  and  two  offspring 352 

Delaine  Merino  Ram  "  Beacon  " 360 

Sheeps'  Teeth,  illustrating  Age 362 

Champion  Merino  Ram.     A  type 364 

Champion  Merino  Ram.     B  type 365 

Delaine  Merino  Ram  "  Victor."     C  type         ......  365 

Judging  Sheep.     Noting  General  Appearance 369 

Determining  Condition  of  Teeth  and  the  Age 369 

Noting  Fullness  of  Neck 369 


XXIV 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Fullness  of  the  Shoulder  . 

Width  of  Chest 

Width  of  Body 

Depth  of  Chest 

Fullness  of  Shoulder  Tops 

Determining  Fullness  of  Back 

Width  of  Hips 

Width  of  Thighs      . 

Condition  of  Leg  of  Mutton 

Examining  the  Fleece  for  the  Finest  of  the  Wool 

Examining  the  Fleece  for  the  Coarsest  of  the  Wool 

American  Merino  Ewes  . 

Rambouillet  Ram     . 

Southdown  Ewe 

Southdown  Lambs  . 

Shropshire  Ram 

Champion  Shropshire  Ewes 

Dressing  Hot-house  Lamb 

Hot-house  Lamb  dressed  and  ready  for  Wrapping 

Hot-house  Lamb  wrapped  and  ready  for  Shipment 

Hampshire  Ram       ...... 

Hampshire  Ewe       ...... 

Champion  Oxford  Ram   . 
Suffolk  Ewe     .... 

Method  of  teaching  Helpless  Young  Lamb  to  Suck 
Horned  Dorset  Ram 
Method  of  marking  Lambs 
Horned  Dorset  Ewe 

Cheviots 

Shearing  Sheep  by  Machinery 
Position  while  shearing  Abdomen   . 
Position  while  shearing  Left  Hind  Leg 
Position  while  shearing  Neck  . 
Position  while  shearing  Left  Shoulder 
Position  while  shearing  Left  Side    . 
Position  while  shearing  Rump 
Position  while  shearing  Right  Shoulder 
Position  while  shearing  Right  Side  . 
Position  while  finishing  Sheep 
Position  of  wool  when  Finished 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  XXV 

PACK 

Sheep  Barn 435 

Leicester  Yearling  Ewe 437 

Cotswold  Ram 441 

Champion  Cotswold  Ram 445 

Lincoln  Ram 449 

Poland  China  Yearling  Boar 455 

Poland  China  Boar 457 

Prize  Berkshire  Sow 460 

Champion  Berkshire  Pig 463 

Large  Yorkshire  or  Large  White  Sow 465 

Large  Yorkshire  or  Large  White  Sow 467 

Duroc  Jersey  Boar  ...........  473 

First  Prize  Duroc  Jersey  Boar .474 

Chester  White  Boar 476 

Chester  White  Pigs 479 

Victoria  Sow 482 

Champion  Hampshire  Swine 488 

Cheshire  Pig  of  Good  Type 493 

Prize  Cheshire  Boar 496 

Group  of  English  Small  Yorkshires  or  Small  Whites       ....  499 

Method  of  marking  Pigs 502 

Hog-dipping  Equipment  ..........  504 

A-shaped  Individual  Hog-house       . 507 

Shed-shaped  Individual  Hog-house 508 

First  Prize  Tarn  worth  Sow 515 

Tamworth  Pig 519 


PART   ONE  — HORSES 

WITH    GENERAL   CHAPTERS    ON   FEEDING   AND 
BREEDING   OF  ANIMALS 


MANUAL   OF   FARM    ANIMALS 

CHAPTER  I 
CHOOSING  A  HORSE  — JUDGING 

In  choosing  any  class  of  animals,  there  are  three  faculties 
that  should  be  well  developed  —  familiarity  with  what  is 
wanted,  powers  of  observation,  and  good  judgment. 

One  must  first  consider  the  use  for  which  the  animal  is 
desired  and  the  type  or  breed  that  will  best  accomplish  the 
given  purpose.  If  the  animal  is  wanted  for  light  trucking 
and  to  deliver  produce  at  the  market,  it  might  be  a  mistake 
to  choose  a  heavy  draft  horse;  whereas  if  the  object  is  to 
deliver  heavy  freight  from  the  car  to  the  freight-house,  it  would 
be  none  the  less  a  mistake  to  choose  a  running  horse.  Again, 
if  the  animal  is  demanded  for  a  farm  where  there  is  consider- 
able heavy  work,  such  as  breaking  the  land,  especially  if  the 
soil  is  heavy,  the  type  of  horse  should  be  unlike  that  for  a 
dairy  farm,  where  the  team  work  is  ordinarily  light.  The 
more  familiar  one  is  with  the  demand  and  the  type  best  suited 
to  meet  it,  the  better  his  chance  of  success. 

The  power  of  observation  should  be  well  developed.  The 
eye  must  see  quickly  and  accurately,  so  that  there  may  be  no 
mistake  in  the  observations  that  are  to  form  the  basis  for  a 
conclusion.  Not  only  should  one  see  things  as  they  are,  but 
there  should  be  dispatch  in  detecting  deviations  from  the  cor- 
rect form.     There  is  much  difficulty  in  this.     One  may  be  fa- 

3 


4  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

miliar  with  the  fact  that  a  few  white  hairs  on  the  knee  may 
indicate  that  the  animal  stumbles,  and  yet  when  examin- 
ing the  horse  entirely  overlook  them ;  in  like  manner,  he  may 
know  that  gray  hairs  on  the  inside  of  the  pastern  may  indicate 
that  the  animal  interferes,  and  yet  the  white  hairs  go  wholly 
unnoticed.  The  difficulty  is  often  increased  by  the  salesman 
attempting  to  cover  up  such  signs,  and  this  should  serve  to  put 
the  prospective  purchaser  on  his  guard. 

Having  noted  the  desirable  and  undesirable  qualities  of  the 
animals  under  consideration,  a  mental  picture  of  each  should 
be  retained,  for  it  often  happens  that  in  the  choice  of  a  horse 
many  animals  are  examined  before  one  is  found  that  is  accept- 
able. Many  live-stock  judges,  particularly  poultry  fanciers, 
have  this  faculty  developed  to  a  marked  degree.  It  often 
happens  that  they  are  called  on  to  judge  large  rings  of  ani- 
mals, fifty  or  more  in  a  single  class,  and  to  be  able  to  place 
these  animals  properly  they  must  remember  each  of  the  ani- 
mals, as  it  is  impossible  to  see  them  all  at  a  glance.  Again, 
retaining  such  a  picture  of  horses  is  of  value  in  matching 
teams.  A  well-matched  team  is  far  more  valuable  than  if 
each  animal  is  sold  separately.  There  are  those  who  make  a 
business  of  buying  animals  singly,  matching  them,  and  selling 
the  team  thus  matched.  This  is  a  very  profitable  business, 
a  few  transactions  each  year  often  netting  a  good  sum. 

After  having  examined  a  number  of  horses,  good,  bad,  and 
indifferent,  some  of  them  filling  the  demand  in  part  only,  and 
some  not  at  all,  the  judgment  is  brought  into  play  to  decide 
on  the  price.  Perhaps  one  animal  answers  every  demand,  but 
the  price  is  high;  another  does  not  please  so  well,  but  the  price 
is  low.  Again,  when  judging  a  ring  of  animals,  one  must  use 
the  judgment  as  to  which  of  two  defects  is  the  more  serious. 
The  judgment  can  and  should  be  trained  in  much  the  same 
way  as  the  power  of  observation  and  the  ability  to  retain  mental 
pictures. 


CHOOSING  A   HORSE  5 

In  choosing  a  horse,  efficiency  depends  much  on  practice 
and  experience.  The  type  to  fill  a  certain  demand,  and  the 
value  of  the  animal  for  such  purpose,  are  recognized  much  more 
quickly  and  accurately  by  one  who  is  buying  many  horses 
daily  than  by  those  who  buy  one  only  occasionally. 

There  are  a  few  considerations  that  apply  with  equal  force  to 
all  classes  of  animals,  such  as  the  examination  in  general,  esti- 
mating age,  detecting  unsoundness,  and  the  like.  These  will  be 
discussed  first;  then  we  will  pass  to  the  choice  of  the  individual. 

GENERAL  EXAMINATION  OF  THE  HORSE 

In  examining  a  horse,  some  system  should  be  followed  in 
order  that  no  point  go  unnoticed.  To  facilitate  this  and  to 
aid  in  establishing  uniform  values  for  the  various  points  of  the 
animal,  the  score-card  was  devised.  Official  score-cards  have 
been  adapted  for  many  of  the  breeds,  and  while  of  little  prac- 
tical value  in  choosing  or  judging  a  horse,  they  do  aid  in  estab- 
lishing a  uniform  standard  for  the  breeder.  The  examination 
of  the  horse  cannot  always  be  made  at  leisure,  but  enough 
time  should  be  taken,  if  possible,  to  make  the  task  complete. 

Examination  in  the  stable.  —  When  possible,  the  horse  should 
first  be  examined  in  the  stable.  Note  the  way  in  which  the 
animal  is  tied  to  the  manger;  whether  he  has  been  chewing 
the  tie-strap  or  the  fixtures;  how  he  stands  in  the  stall;  and 
his  general  behavior,  when  you  step  to  his  side.  Note  the 
horse's  conduct  while  grooming,  particularly  along  the  belly, 
the  backs  of  the  forelegs,  and  the  fronts  of  the  hind  legs  and 
about  the  flank.  Harness  the  animal.  Note  the  manner  of 
taking  the  bit;  the  behavior  when  placing  the  headstall  over 
the  ears;  the  harness  over  the  back;  the  crupper  under  the 
tail;  and  when   buckling  the  girth. 

The  horse  may  how  be  taken  from  the  stall.  Note  the  action 
as  he  is  being  turned  around.  In  many  sale  stables  there  is  a 
contemptible  practice  of  introducing  ginger  into  the  rectum  as 


6  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  animal  is  being  taken  out,  as  this  serves  to  stimulate  the 
animal  and  he  shows  to  advantage.  As  the  horse  passes  into 
the  yard,  the  door-way  affords  a  very  good  place  to  examine  the 
horse's  eyes,  nostrils,  mouth,  and  noting  the  age. 


Fig.  1. — Arab    Stallion 


"  Shahwan."      Imported  by  J.  A.  P.  Ramsdell,  of 
Newburg,  N.  Y. 


The  Arab  horse,  named  after  his  native  country,  is  particularly  noted  as  being  the 
animal  that  gave  the  English  Thoroughbred  running  horse  its  speed  and  endur- 
ance. Arabs  are  full  of  quality,  very  intelligent,  and  docile.  They  are  chiefly 
used  as  officers'  chargers,  or  for  siring  polo  ponies. 


Examination  of  the  horse  in  action.  —  First,  note  action  while 
being  led  by  the  halter.  Without  regard  for  type,  observe  the 
walk.  This  is  a  much  neglected  though  very  important  gait 
for  all  types  and  breeds  of  horses.     Next  note  the  trot,  and, 


CHOOSING  A   HOUSE  7 

with  the  saddler  the  various  saddle  gaits.  These  trials  should 
take  place  on  pavement  or  hard  surface,  as  solid  footing  affords 
the  best  conditions  to  detect  the  existence  of  lameness.  These 
gaits  should  be  noted  from  the  front,  from  behind,  and  from  either 
side.  Second,  note  the  action  when  hitched  to  the  kind  of 
vehicle  for  which  the  horse  is  intended.  Observe  the  horse  first 
at  the  walk,  then  the  trot  from  in  front,  behind,  and  either  side. 
Notice  manner  of  starting,  turning,  stopping,  backing,  and  the 
like.  The  prospective  purchaser  should  now  mount  the  vehicle 
and  drive  the  horse,  observing  his  action,  general  behavior, 
manner  of  taking  the  bit,  ease  with  which  he  is  driven  and 
guided  this  way  and  that.  When  satisfied  in  all  respects,  stop 
the  horse  and  observe  him  standing  after  the  exercise,  especially 
with  respect  to  the  regularity  of  breathing  and  his  manner  of 
standing.  Third,  if  the  horse  is  intended  for  saddle  purposes, 
in  part,  he  should  be  tried  out  under  the  saddle,  observing  his 
behavior  when  mounting,  the  ease  of  movement  and  the  like, 
with  even  more  caution  than  when  being  led  or  hitched  to  a 
vehicle. 

HOW    TO    ESTIMATE    THE    AGE    OF    A    HORSE 

The  age  of  a  horse  is  an  important  factor  in  determining  his 
present  and  prospective  value.  Familiarity  with  the  characters 
that  indicate  age  are,  therefore,  often  extremely  useful.  A 
knowledge  of  these  characters  is  not  difficult  to  secure,  but  skill 
in  their  application  depends  much  on  continued  practice. 

General  considerations.  —  In  estimating  the  age  of  a  horse, 
the  teeth  furnish  the  best  index,  yet  there  are  other  general  con- 
siderations that  play  an  important  part,  especially  in  the  case 
of  young  and  very  old  animals.  In  estimating  the  age  of  young 
animals,  size  is  the  principal  factor  to  be  considered.  In  very 
old  horses,  white  hairs  make  their  appearance  around  the  temple, 
the  eyes,  the  nostrils,  and  elsewhere ;  the  poll  or  top  of  the  head 
becomes  more  pointed ;    the  sides  of  the  face  more  depressed ; 


8  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  hollows  above  the  eyes  deeper ;  the  backbone  becomes  more 
prominent  and  often  strongly  curved  downward,  and  the  animal 
does  not  stand  squarely  on  his  legs,  which  show  more  wear. 

Examination  of  the  teeth.  —  While  the  order  of  the  appearance 
of  the  teeth  and  their  method  of  wearing  are  considered  the  most 
important  and  accurate  means  of  estimating  the  age  of  domestic 
animals,  and  are  the  means  employed  by  all  horsemen,  these  are 
not  absolutel\r  accurate,  and  much  depends  on  the  condition  as 
well  as  the  individuality  of  the  animal.  The  teeth  of  animals 
that  have  bones  of  somewhat  open  structure  are  likely  to  in- 
dicate that  the  animals  are  older  than  they  really  are ;  while 
the  teeth  of  those  whose  bones  are  of  fine  close  texture  may 
indicate  them  to  be  younger  than  they  are.  Again,  animals  fed 
on  soft  and  succulent  food  are  likely  to  show  a  younger  mouth, 
whereas  those  fed  on  hard,  dry  food  are  likely  to  show  an  older 
mouth. 

The  horse  when  full  grown  has  forty  teeth,  twenty  on  either 
jaw,  divided  as  follows:  six  nippers,  two  canines,  one  on  either 
side,  and  twelve  molars,  six  on  a  side.  In  the  mare  the  canines 
are  usually  absent.  Since  only  the  nippers  or  incisor  teeth  are 
inspected  in  estimating  the  age,  they  alone  will  be  considered. 
It  is  the  order  in  which  the  nippers  make  their  appearance  that 
enables  us  to  estimate  the  age  of  the  horse  up  to  five  years, 
and  the  manner  in  which  their  surface  is  worn  that  aids  us  in  the 
estimation  from  five  to  eleven  years  of  age.  After  the  horse  has 
passed  the  eleventh  year  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  age.  In 
practice  the  age  is  designated  as  eleven,  twelve,  or  fifteen  past, 
as  the  case  may  be,  but  how  much  past  cannot  be  told  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy. 

The  colt  is  provided  before  the  end  of  the  first  month  with  a  set 
of  temporary  or  milk  teeth,  the  first  or  middle  pair  appearing 
at  about  one  week  of  age ;  the  second  or  intermediate  pair  at 
one  to  two  weeks  of  age  ;  and  the  third  or  lateral  pair  appearing 
at  about  one  month  of  age.     The  difference  in  size  of  the  jaw- 


CHOOSING   A   HORSE  9 

bone  between  the  foal  and  the  grown  horse  makes  a  change  from 
milk  to  permanent  teeth  necessary.  The  permanent  replace 
the  temporary  teeth  at  two  and  one-half  or  three  years  of  age 
up  to  five  years.  It  is  seldom  that  one  is  called  on  to  esti- 
mate the  age  before  two  and  one-half  years  because  the  ani- 
mal has  not  yet  reached  the  period  of  usefulness,  and  even  if 
the  age  must  be  estimated,  size  is  considered  more  than  any 
other  factor. 

Three  years  old.  —  At  about  two  years  and  nine  months  of 
age  the  permanent  pair  of  center  nippers  replaces  the  temporary 
ones,  and  by  the  time  the  animal  is  three  years  of  age  they  are  up 
and  ready  for  use.  They  will  have  deep  cups  and  are  much 
larger  than  the  temporary  teeth.  If  the  colt  be  a  male,  small 
tusks  will  appear  at  about  this  time. 

Four  years  old.  —  At  about  three  years  and  nine  months,  the 
intermediate  pair  of  permanent  nippers  appear  and  is  up  and 
ready  for  use  at  four  years  of  age.  The  center  pair  shows  much 
wear  and  the  cups  are  about  one-third  gone.  The  tusks,  if 
any,  have  enlarged,  but  are  still  sharp  on  their  points  and  flattish 
on  the  inside. 

Five  years  old.  —  At  about  four  years  and  nine  months,  the 
permanent  corner  nippers  make  their  appearance  and  are  up 
and  ready  for  use  at  five  years  of  age.  At  five  years  of  age  the 
horse  has  a  full  mouth  of  permanent  teeth ;  the  center  nippers 
show  two  years'  wear  and  have  changed  slightly  in  shape,  having 
become  rounder  on  the  inside,  the  cups  being  two-thirds  gone ; 
the  intermediate  nippers  show  one  year's  wear,  the  cup  being  one- 
third  gone.  Five  years  is  the  age  preferred  on  the  market,  and 
occasionally  horsemen  extract  the  temporary  nippers,  which 
hastens  the  appearance  of  the  permanent  teeth. 

Six  years  old.  —  The  cups  in  the  center  pair  in  the  lower  jaw 
have  disappeared,  or  nearly  so ;  they  have  become  much 
smaller  in  the  intermediates  and  show  one  year's  wear  in  the 
corner  nippers. 


10 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  2.  —  Front  Teeth  in 
Lower  Jaw  at  Three 
Years  of  Age.  Two 
center  permanent  teeth 
up.  —  (Figs.  2-17,  from 
Goubaux  and  Barrier.) 


Fig.  3.  —  Front  Teeth  in 
Lower  Jaw  at  Four 
Years  of  Age.  Four 
center  permanent  teeth 
up. 


Fig.  4.  —  Front  Teeth  in 
Lower  Jaw  at  Five  Years 
of  Age.  All  permanent 
teeth  up. 


Fig.  5.  —  Front  Teeth  in 
Lower  Jaw  at  Six 
Years  of  Age.  Cups 
out  of  center  teeth. 


Fig.  6.  —  Front  View 
of  a  Five-year-old 
Mouth. 


Fig.  7.  —  Side  View 
of  a  Five-year-old 
Mouth. 


Fig.  8.  —  Front  Teeth 
in  Lower  Jaw  at 
Seven  Years  of  Age. 
Cups  out  of  interme- 
diate teeth. 


CHOOSING  A   HORSE  11 

Seven  years  old.  —  At  seven,  the  cups  are  gone  from  the  inter- 
mediate pair  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  have  become  quite  shallow 
in  the  corner  nippers.  There  is  a  notch  in  the  upper  corner 
nipper  where  it  overlaps  the  lower  one.  Marked  changes  in 
shape  have  taken  place  in  the  nippers;  they  are  becoming  thicker 
from  inside  out,  rounder  on  the  inside,  and  meet  at  a  sharper 
angle  than  when  they  first  made  their  appearance. 

Eight  years  old.  —  At  eight  years,  the  cups  are  gone  from  all 
the  nippers  of  the  lower  jaw.  They  are  present  in  all  of  the 
upper  jaw. 

Nine  years  old.  —  The  cups  in  the  center  pair  of  nippers  of 
the  upper  jaw  have  disappeared,  but  are  still  present  in  the 
intermediate  and  corner  nippers.  The  cups  are  not  likely  to 
disappear  at  as  regular  intervals  in  the  upper  jaw  as  they  did 
in  the  lower.  Therefore  it  is  not  always  possible  to  tell  the  age 
of  the  horse  so  accurately. 

Ten  years  old. — At  ten  years  of  age,  the  cups  have  disappeared 
from  the  upper  intermediates,  but  are  still  retained  in  the  corner 
nippers,  though  shallow.  The  teeth  are  more  triangular  in 
shape,  and  those  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaw  meet  at  a  sharper 
angle  as  the  age  increases. 

Eleven  years  old.  —  At  eleven  years,  the  cups  are  gone  from 
all  the  nippers  of  the  upper  jaw.  However,  because  of  the  fact 
that  some  horses  have  denser  bones  than  others,  it  is  not  un- 
common to  find  shallow  cups  in  the  upper  corner  teeth  as  late 
as  the  twelfth  or  the  fifteenth  year. 

Aged  horses.  —  After  the  horse  has  passed  the  twelfth  year, 
the  matter  of  a  year  or  two  amounts  to  little.  Much  depends 
on  the  individuality  of  the  animal,  as  some  animals  are  worth 
more  at  fifteen  than  others  at  twelve.  One's  judgment  of  the 
value  of  a  horse  at  these  ages  should  be  formed  on  general  ap- 
pearances and  activities  rather  than  on  age. 

In  old  horses,  the  nipper  teeth  have  become  nearly  triangular, 
showing  long  wear  and  meeting  at  an  acute  angle.     The  tusks 


12 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  9.  —  Front  Teeth 
in  Lower  Jaw  at  Eight 
Years  of  Age.  Cups  all 
out. 


Fig.  12.  —  Front  Teeth  in 
Upper  Jaw  at  Eleven 
Years  of  Age.  Cups  all 
out. 


Fig.  10. —  Front-  Teeth 
in  Upper  Jaw  at  Nine 
Years  of  Age.  Cups 
out  of  center  teeth. 


Fig.  13.  —  Front  Teeth  in 
Upper  Jaw  at  Fifteen 
Years  of  Age.  Teeth 
quite  triangular. 


Fig.  11.  —  Front  Teeth 
in  Upper  Jaw  at  Ten 
Years  of  Age.  Cups 
out  of  intermediate 
teeth. 


Fig.  14.  —  Front  Teeth  in 
Upper  Jaw  at  Twenty-one 
Years  of  Age. 


CHOOSING  A  HORSE 


13 


are  large,  blunt,  and  round.  The 
nippers  may  have  grown  out  so  long 
as  to .  prevent  the  grinders  from 
meeting,  in  which  case  a  horse  will 
spit  out  his  food  after  masticating  a 
part  of  it.  If  the  nippers  are  rasped 
off,  the  grinders  will  meet,  and  the 
horse's  life  will  be  somewhat  pro- 
longed. 

Irregularities  in  the  teeth.  —  It 
often  happens  that  the  teeth  are 
not  regular,  in  which  case  the  horse 
is  said  to  have  a  false  mouth.  These 
irregularities  may  occur  in  the 
number:  there  may  be  more  or  less 
than  the  regular  number  —  thirty- 
six  in  mares  or  forty  in  horses ;  they 
may  occur  in  the  form  of  the  teeth  or 
the  uniting  of  two  teeth ;  they  may 
occur  because  one  jaw  happens  to 
be  longer  or  shorter  than  the  other ; 
they  may  come  as  the  result  of 
cribbing,  some  horses  have  the  bad 
habit  of  biting  the  stall  fixtures  or 
other  surrounding  objects,  thus  break- 
ing off  the  free  borders  of  the  teeth, 
which  make  the  teeth  irregular  and 
which  must  not  be  confused  with 
normal  wear.  Such  cases  can  usu- 
ally be  recognized  by  the  broken-off 
particles  and  the  roughed  surface. 

Irregularities  may  result  from  the 
employment  of  fraudulent  means, 
the  horseman  striving   to   give   the 


Fig.  15.  —  Side  View  of  a 
Twenty-  one-year-old 
Mouth.  Note  the  sharp 
angle  at  which  the  teeth 
meet. 


Fig.  16.  —  Front  View 
of  a  Twenty-one- 
year-old  Mouth. 


Fig.  17.  —  Front  Teeth  in 
Upper  Jaw  at  Thirty 
Years  of  Age. 


14  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

mouth  the  characteristics  of  that  period  of  life  in  which  the 
horses  have  their  greatest  value,  thus  endeavoring  to  make  the 
young  appear  old  and  the  old  appear  young.  It  is  ordinarily 
easy  for  one  of  experience  to  detect  a  mouth  that  has  been  tam- 
pered with.  While  many  are  very  skillful  at  bishoping,  it  is  a 
hard  matter  very  materially  to  alter  the  mouth  without  detec- 
tion. After  the  teeth  have  once  been  interfered  with  they  can 
no  longer  serve  as  an  index  in  estimating  age,  the  dental  tables, 
the  cups,  and  the  like  having  been  partly  or  wholly  destroyed. 

DETECTING    UNSOUNDNESS 

A  satisfactory  definition  of  soundness  or  unsoundness  is  not 
easily  given.  The  term  "unsound"  as  used  by  horse  dealers 
in  this  country  is  often  loosely  applied.  It  may  mean  anything 
from  a  mere  bad  habit  to  a  defect  that  renders  the  animal 
absolutely  worthless.  The  best  usage  warrants  dividing  these 
imperfections  into  two  classes  —  blemishes  and  unsoundness. 

A  blemish  may  be  defined  as  something  that  depreciates  the 
value  of  a  horse  without  interfering  with  his  usefulness,  such  as 
wire  cuts,  car  bruises,  and  the  like  which  mar  the  appearance  of 
a  horse  but  do  not  limit  his  functions. 

An  unsoundness  may  be  defined  as  an  imperfection  of  so  serious 
a  nature  as  to  interfere  with  the  usefulness  of  the  horse,  such  as 
ring-bones,  side-bones,  splints,  curbs,  and  the  like. 

The  ability  to  detect  unsoundness  depends  largely  on  practice; 
yet  some  imperfections  cannot  be  detected  by  an  ordinary  ex- 
amination, and  it  is  only  after  becoming  familiar  with  the  animal 
that  these  will  be  observed.  In  examining  a  horse  for  unsound- 
ness, it  is  well  to  follow  a  regular  order  beginning  with  the  head 
and  ending  with  the  feet.  There  are  a  great  number  of  im- 
perfections to  be  found  among  horses,  too  many  to  be  catalogued 
here.     The  following  list  contains  the  more  important :  — 

Decayed  and  broken  teeth.  —  A  foul  odor  indicates  decayed 
or  unsound  teeth.     This  can  easily  be  detected,  as  it  attaches 


CHOOSING  A   HORSE 


15 


itself  to  the  hand  on  being  introduced  into  the  mouth.     Nippers 
with  broken  edges  indicate  that  the  horse  is  addicted  to  cribbing. 


Fig.  18.  —  Imported  Percheron"  Stallion  "Carnot,"  No.  66666.  Imported 
by  J.  Crouch  &  Son,  Lafayette,  Ind.  Sold  to  W.  S.  Corso,  Whitehall,  111., 
for  $  10,000.     "Champion  Percheron  Stallion  of  America." 

The  Percheron  draft  horse,  a  native  of  La  Percha,  France,  is  noted  for  his  massive 
size,  quality,  endurance,  and  action.  In  weight,  stallions  usually  average 
from  1700  to  2000  pounds  and  mares  from  1400  to  1800  pounds.  In  height, 
stallions  range  from  153^  to  17  hands  and  mares  from  15  to  163^.  The  color 
is  exceedingly  variable,  though  black  and  dapple  gray  predominate.  This  is 
the  most  common  breed  of  heavy  draft  horses  in  the  United  States. 


Discharge  from  the  nostrils.  —  There  should  be  no  discharge 
from  the  nostrils,  which  should  be  fresh  pink  in  color.     A  profuse 


16  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

colored  discharge  suggests  glanders,  distemper,  shipping  fever, 
and  similar  diseases.  This  may  be  only  temporary,  but  one  can- 
not afford  to  take  the  risk. 

Impaired  vision.  —  A  horse  by  its  action  will  usually  betray 
imperfect  eyesight.  Blind  horses  have  a  peculiar  high  stepping 
gait  or  are  inclined  to  shy  readily  and  often  without  cause.  The 
ears  are  exceedingly  active,  as  if  trying  to  aid  the  eyes.  Blind- 
ness may  be  discovered  by  moving  the  hand  gently  in  front  of  the 
eyes  or  by  closing  the  eye  with  the  hand  and  excluding  the  light 
for  a  moment;  the  pupil  should  dilate  to  its  utmost  capacity; 
when  the  hand  is  removed  and  the  light  strikes  the  eye,  the 
pupil  should  rapidly  contract  to  its  normal  size.  This  shows 
that  the  eye  is  sensitive  to  light. 

Defective  hearing.  —  When  the  horse's  ears  are  rigid,  it  in- 
dicates that  the  hearing  is  defective.  The  animal  is  unre- 
sponsive when  spoken  to,  and  the  eyes  are  active.  Defective 
hearing  is  more  common  than  supposed. 

Poll-evil  is  a  disease  located  at  the  top  of  the  head  and  is  in- 
dicated by  the  parts  being  exceedingly  tender.  Its  causes  are 
many,  and  it  is  very  serious. 

Sweenied  shoulders  is  a  wasting  away  of  the  muscle  on  the  out- 
side of  the  shoulder  blade.  This  can  be  readily  detected  as 
the  shoulder  appears  flat  and  the  blade  bare  of  muscle. 

Fistulas.  —  Exceeding  tenderness  at  the  withers  may  in- 
dicate that  the  horse  has  fistulse,  though  at  the  time  there  may 
be  no  external  signs. 

Capped  elbows.  —  Sores  formed  on  the  elbows  while  the  ani- 
mal is  lying  down  are  unsightly  and  can  readily  be  seen. 

Unsound  knees.  —  The  knee  should  be  examined  for  bony 
enlargements,  wind-puffs,  scars  on  the  front,  and  speed-cuts. 
Scars  on  the  front  indicate  the  horse  is  a  stumbler. 

Splints.  —  Bony  bunches  on  the  inside  of  the  cannon  are 
called  splints.  These  must  not  be  confused  with  the  two  small 
bones  associated  with  the  cannon.     Splints  located  on  the  back 


CHOOSING   A    DORSE  17 

part  of  the  leg  near  the  tendon  or  close  to  the  knee  joint  are  con- 
sidered most  objectionable,  as  they  are  likely  to  interfere  with 
the  action  and  cause  the  animal  lameness.  When  located  on 
the  side,  they  are  less  likely  to  cause  lameness  and  not  so  objec- 
tionable.    Splints  may  disappear  from  young  draft  horses. 

Ring-bones.  —  Bony  bunches  on  the  fetlock  and  pastern  are 
called  ring-bone.  There  are  two  forms,  called  high  and  low, 
depending  on  the  location. 

Side-bone.  —  Just  at  the  top  of  the  hoof,  on  either  side,  the 
cartilages  should  be  examined  to  see  that  they  are  not  ossified, 
forming  side-bones.    These  are  common  on  the  front  feet  only. 

Scratches  is  located  on  the  back  of  the  pastern,  and  can  be 
easily  detected;  it  often  causes  the  horse  a  great  deal  of  pain 
and  annoyance. 

Unsound  hoofs.  —  The  hoofs  should  be  closely  examined  for 
quarter  cracks  —  cracks  extending  from  the  coronary  band 
downward  ;  for  sand  cracks  — 
cracks  extending  from  the  bot- 
tom upward  ;  for  seedy  toe  — 
a  softening  of  the  wall  at  the 
toe  of  the  hoof ;  for  thrush  — 
a  diseased  condition  of  the  foot 
in  the  region  of  the  frog,  which 
makes  its  presence  known  by 
a  disagreeable  odor  ;  for  quitter 
—  a  running  sore  occurring  at      Fl^-  19-  — First  Prize  Percheron 

Stallions.     Owned  by  J.  Crouch 
the  top  Of  the  hoof   Or  coronet,  &  Son,  Lafayette,  Ind. 

sometimes  called  "gravel"  ;  for 

corns  —  bunions  located  in  the  corner  of  the  heels,  common 
in  animals  with  weak  low  heels ;  for  laminitis  or  founder  — 
congestion  of  blood  in  the  region  of  the  toe,  common  in  heavy 
horses ;  and  for  navicular  disease  —  caused  by  overworking 
the  tendons  that  pass  to  the  navicular  bone,  common  in 
light  and  very  active  animals, 
c 


18  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Thoroughpin  occurs  between  the  tendon  and  the  upper  point 
of  the  hock.  It  consists  of  a  soft  swelling  and  may  be  easily 
detected,  as  it  can  be  pushed  from  side  to  side. 

Spavin.  — There  are  three  kinds  of  spavin  —  bone,  bog,  and 
occult.      Bone-spavin  is  the  most  common,  and  consists  of  a 

bony  growth  on  the  inside  and 
front  of  the  hind  leg  just  below 
the  hock.  To  detect  bone- 
spavin,  stand  in  front  and  to  the 
side  of  the  animal  so  the  inner 
outline  of  the  hind  leg  may  be 
clearly  seen.  Bog-spavin  occurs 
in  the  natural  depression  on  the 
inner  and  front  part  of  the  hock 
and  consists  of  a  soft  swelling, 
^       on       -d  -  formed  by  the  oil,  which  accumu- 

Pig.    20.  —  Percheron       Stallion 

"Coco."    A  noted  prize  winner.       lates  from  the  joint.     The  term 

"  blood  spavin"  is  sometimes 
applied  to  the  enlargement  of  the  vein  that  passes  across  the 
hock  from  the  front.  Occult-spavin  is  located  in  the  joint  and 
is  hard  to  detect.  The  usual  method  of  detection  is  to  lift  the 
suspected  leg  and  then  start  the  horse  off  quickly. 

Stringhalt  is  a  marked  jerking  of  the  hind  leg  as  the  horse 
travels.  In  some  cases  it  is  seen  only  when  the  horse  first  starts 
and  disappears  after  a  few  steps  have  been  taken. 

Curb  occurs  on  the  back  of  the  cannon  just  below  the  hock. 
It  may  be  easily  detected  by  looking  at  the  leg  from  the  side, 
as  it  is  a  variation  from  a  straight  line  that  should  run  from 
the  point  of  the  hock  to  the  fetlock  joint. 

Forging  and  overreaching.  —  A  horse  is  said  to  forge  when 
the  shoes  of  the  hind  feet  strike  those  of  the  fore  feet, 
making  a  characteristic  sound.  Overreaching  is  the  striking 
of  the  fore  and  hind  feet  in  such  a  way  as  to  injure  the 
horse. 


CHOOSING  A  HORSE  19 

Interfering.  —  A  horse  is  said  to  interfere  when  he  strikes  his 
fore  or  hind  feet  together  in  such  a  way  as  to  injure  them. 

Locating  lameness.  —  When  standing,  a  horse  troubled  with 
sore  feet  will  extend  them  as  far  as  possible.  If  only  one  is 
sore,  he  puts  the  lame  one  forward  and  is  often  spoken  of  as  a 
pointer.  When  the  trouble  is  in  the  shoulder,  the  leg  will  be 
flexed  at  the  knee.  When  in  motion,  the  horse  puts  the  sound 
foot  down  with  confidence  and  makes  an  effort  to  ease  the  ailing 
one  by  throwing  the  head  up  as  it  strikes  the  ground. 

Unsound  in  wind.  —  There  are  three  common  defects  in  the 
wind  —  unsound  wind,  roaring,  and  heaves.  To  detect  these, 
drive  the  horse  rapidly  for  half  a  mile,  then  stop  quickly  and 
listen  to  the  breathing  by  placing  the  ear  near  the  lungs  or  by 
standing  near  the  neck.  If  the  horse  gets  his  breath  with 
difficulty,  he  is  thick  winded.  If  in  breathing  he  wheezes  and 
whistles,  he  is  a  roarer.  If  the  breathing  is  irregular,  it  is  likely 
he  is  troubled  with  heaves.  To  detect  this,  observe  the  flanks 
for  the  characteristic  double  movement,  as  the  air  from  the  lungs 
seems  to  be  half  expelled  when  the  respiration  stops  for  a  brief 
period  and  then  the  expulsion  of  the  air  is  completed. 

If  a  horse  has  passed  through  many  hands  in  a  short  period, 
it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  there  is  some  radical  blemish  or 
unsoundness  that  is  not  easily  discovered. 

TYPES    OF    HORSES 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  horses.  First,  is  the  light 
type,  useful  for  light  work  and  for  speed.  This  group  is  further 
divided  into  running,  trotting,  pacing,  saddling,  coaching,  ex- 
pressing type,  and  the  like.  Second,  the  heavy  type  for  heavy 
work  and  is  further  divided  into  light  draft,  medium  draft,  and 
heavy  draft  type.  Horses  belonging  to  the  first  type  are  usually 
designated  light  horses;  those  belonging  to  the  second,  draft 
horses.  As  the  form  or  conformation  best  adapted  for  one  is 
different  from  that  of  the  other,  we  cannot  find  both  united  in 


20  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  same  animal.  It  is  a  physical  impossibility  to  have  maxi- 
mum speed  and  maximum  draft  in  the  same  engine,  and  such 
is  none  the  less  the  case  among  horses. 

The  light  type.  —  In  conformation,  horses  belonging  to  the 
light  type  vary  considerably,  depending  on  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  adopted.  For  example,  the  saddle  horse  differs  in 
many  respects  from  the  running  horse,  and  the  trotter  or  pacer 
has  many  characteristics  unlike  either.  However,  since  horses 
belonging  to  the  light  type  are  each  intended  for  light  and  rather 
fast  work,  they  possess  many  points  in  common. 

In  general  conformation,  the  light  type  of  horse  is  rather  tall, 
upstanding,  the  limbs  long,  the  distance  from  the  chest  to  the 
ground  is  more  than  one-half  the  height  of  the  horse  from  the 
withers  to  the  ground.  The  distance  from  the  withers  to  the 
knee  and  from  the  hips  to  the  hock  is  great.  The  animals  are 
somewhat  narrow  but  rather  deep  in  front.  In  general  form 
the  light  type  resembles  the  greyhound. 

Heavy  type.  —  In  general  conformation,  the  heavy  type  of 
horse  is  massive,  blocky,  low  set,  the  limbs  short,  the  distance 
from  the  chest  to  the  ground  one-half  the  height  of  the  animal 
from  the  withers  to  the  ground.  In  general  form,  this  type 
resembles  the  bull-dog.  Weight  is  important.  In  order  to 
pull  heavy  loads  the  draft  horse  must  possess  plenty  of  weight. 
A  draft  horse  in  fair  condition  at  maturity  weighs  from  1500  to 
2400  pounds,  according  to  the  class. 

CHOOSING   A   LIGHT   HORSE 

Having  considered  the  method  of  procedure  and  the  type,  we 
will  now  discuss  the  desirable  and  undesirable  characters  of  each 
type.  For  convenience  these  are  divided  into  two  classes : 
first,  the  general  appearance,  those  characters  having  to  do  with 
the  horse  as  a  whole,  such  as  form,  quality,  and  action ;  and 
second,  the  detail  characters,  having  to  do  with  each  point  in- 


CHOOSING  A   HOESE  21 

dependent  of  the  others,  such  as  the  head,  neck,  shoulder,  and 
the  like. 

General  appearance  in  light  horses 

The  form,  action,  quality,  color,  and  temperament  are  very- 
important  characters  among  light  horses,  and  add  to  or  detract 
from  their  desirability. 

Form.  —  One  of  the  first  characters  to  attract  attention 
among  light  horses  is  the  general  form.  In  those  of  good  form 
there  is  a  peculiar  balance  and  harmony  throughout  the  make-up 
which  is  difficult  to  describe  and  must  be  observed  to  be  appre- 
ciated. The  form  varies  according  to  the  object  sought,  that 
of  the  coacher  being  full  and  plump,  while  that  of  the  trotter 
or  runner  will  be  lean  and  angular.  The  position  and  direction 
of  the  limbs  should  receive  special  consideration.  They  should 
be  viewed  from  in  front,  behind,  and  either  side.  In  this  con- 
nection, it  will  prove  helpful  if  one  will  bear  in  mind  that  the 
limbs  should  be  so  formed  as  to  meet  the  following  requirements  : 
the  fore  leg  when  viewed  from  the  side  should  be  so  formed 
that  a  plumb  line  dropped  from  the  elbow  joint  would  pass 
through  the  middle  of  the  knee,  the  cannon,  and  the  fetlock,  and 
fall  a  short  distance  behind  the  heel ;  when  viewed  from  in  front, 
the  line  lowered  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  would  divide 
equally  the  knee,  the  cannon,  and  the  foot,  leaving  between  the 
two  feet  an  interval  equal  to  the  width  of  the  hoof.  The  hind 
leg  when  viewed  from  behind  should  be  so  formed  that  a  plumb 
line  lowered  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  will  pass  through  the 
middle  of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot,  leaving  between 
the  two  feet  an  interval  almost  equal  to  the  width  of  the  hock. 
This  line  should  -also  just  touch  the  back  of  the  hock  and  the 
pastern  joint. 

Action.  —  In  the  market  for  light  horses  there  is  no  single 
feature  held  in  higher  estimation  than  that  of  good  action. 
Desirable  action  varies  according  to  the  object  sought,  but  to 


22 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


sell  well  a  light  horse  must  possess  as  much  as  may  be  displayed 
and  used  to  advantage.  Excellence  at  a  walk  is  a  very  desirable 
quality  in  all  types  of  horses.  The  feet  of  the  active  walkers 
leave  the  ground  with  a  quick  snap,  and  move  straight  away, 
swerving  neither  to  the  right  nor  to  the  left,  nor  should  the  folding 
of  the  knees  or  the  flexing  of  the  hocks  result  in  an  outward 
pitching  or  spreading.  In  addition  to  being  snappy,  regular, 
and  straight,  it  should  be  fast.  This  is  a  point  often  neglected, 
and  many  good  acting  horses  are  provokingly  slow  walkers. 

Action  at  the  trot  will  vary  according  to  the  class.     In  the 
roadster  a  strong,  long-reaching  knee-and-hock  action,  with  the 

feet  picked  up 
snappy,  is  most  es- 
sential. The  stride 
should  be  long  and 
not  too  high.  In 
the  coacher,  a  rather 
high,  bold  knee-and- 
hock  action  is  the 
most  sought.  In 
all  classes  the  move- 
ment should  be 
straight  and  regu- 
lar. There  must 
be  style  and  dash 
in  the  lifting  and 
planting  of  the  feet. 


Fig.    21.  —  Hackney   Coach   Team. 
and  stylish. 


Well-trained 


The  foot  should  be  snapped  from  the  ground  and  carried  for- 
ward, while  the  limb  unfolds,  as  if  following  the  rim  of  a 
wheel.  The  hind  feet  should  leave  the  ground  with  the  same 
quick  movement,  and  at  no  time  should  be  allowed  to  hang 
back  and  give  the  horse  the  appearance  of  not  gathering  him- 
self well  together. 

Quality  is  a  term  rather  loosely  applied  and  has  reference  to 


CHOOSING  A   HORSE  23 

the  bones,  skin,  and  hair.  Evidences  of  desirable  quality  are 
clean-cut  features,  soft  skin,  silky  hair,  and  clean  dense  bone. 
In  those  horses  possessing  quality  the  lines  of  the  face  are 
clearly  defined,  the  veins  in  the  skin  show  clearly,  and  there  is 
a  complete  absence  of  coarseness.  Freedom  from  coarseness  in 
the  joints  and  tendons  emphasizes  soundness  and  guarantees 
durability.  Another  evidence  of  quality  is  seen  in  those  ani- 
mals whose  muscles  stand  out  clearly  defined  and  distinct.  The 
best  way  to  determine  quality  is  to  run  the  hand  down  the  leg 
over  the  knee  and  cannon  bone.  The  hair  and  skin  should  feel 
soft  and  pliable  to  the  touch  and  the  bone  firm  and  smooth. 
The  fingers  should  seem  almost  to  touch  each  other  as  they 
pass  between  the  tendon  and  the  bone. 

Coarse  hair  is  associated  with  coarse  thick  skin  which  indi- 
cates an  abundance  of  connective  tissue  which  in  turn  is  asso- 
ciated with  soft,  spongy  bones  that  cannot  endure  strain  or 
hard  usage. 

The  temperament  is  reflected  in  the  action  and  manners.  It 
should  be  lively  and  pleasant.  When  possible,  the  purchaser 
should  know  something  of  the  ancestors  of  the  horse  under 
consideration,  as  a  horse  may  inherit  characteristics  which  can- 
not be  discovered  until  he  has  been  used  some  time,  and 
peculiarities  of  temper  are  among  these  characters. 

Detail  characters  of  a  light  horse 
Having  considered  the  general  appearance  of  the  light  horse, 
then  pass  to  a  detailed  examination  of  the  characters;  and  in 
order  that  none  go  unnoticed  they  should  be  observed  in  the 
following  order :  — 

Head.  —  Among  light  horses  the  head  should  be  lean,  with 
broad  forehead  tapering  towards  the  nostrils,  and  the  features 
of  the  face  should  be  distinct.  The  nostrils  should  be  large, 
open,  and  of  pink  color.  The  eye  should  be  large,  full,  clear, 
and  bright,  indicative  of  a  kind,  generous  disposition  and  good 


24 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


health.  The  jaw-bones  should  be  strong  and  wide,  providing 
ample  room  for  a  large  wind-pipe.  The  ears  should  be  active, 
refined,  neither  large  nor  small,  carried  close  and  erect  and  turn- 
ing slightly  in  at  the  tips.  Lop  ears  indicate  laziness.  A 
smooth  neat  attachment  of  head  to  neck  is.  highly  essential,  a 
fullness  at  the  throat  and  about  the  wind-pipe  being  most 
undesirable. 

Neck.  —  A  nicely  arched  and  well-muscled  neck  of  sufficient 
length,  carrying  the  head  gracefully,  is  a  highly  desirable  feature 


Fig.  22.  —  An  American  Trotter.     A  driving  horse  of  good  form. 

The  American  Trotting  breed  of  horses  developed  in  United  States.  The  breed 
is  the  outgrowth  of  a  demand  for  a  light  road  horse  possessing  speed  and  en- 
durance. The  weight  and  height  are  exceedingly  variable.  The  body  is  light, 
narrow,  but  deep,  and  the  legs  are  long,  but  clean,  and  free  from  coarseness. 
All  colors  are  found,  but  solid  colors  such  as  browns  and  bays  are  preferred  to 
grays,  roans,  and  the  like. 


of  the  light  horse.  Much  of  the  style  and  symmetry  of  the 
coach  horse  is  observed  in  the  make-up  and  carriage  of  the 
head  and  neck.  The  wind-pipe  should  be  large,  and  the  outline 
appear  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  neck.  Many  excellent  road 
horses  have  a  ewe  neck,  but  it  detracts  very  much  from  the 


CHOOSING  A  HORSE  25 

general  appearance.     The  neck  and  body  should  blend  smoothly 
at  the  attachment. 

Chest.  —  Among  light  horses  the  chest  should  obtain  its 
capacity  more  from  depth  than  width.  A  deep  chest  permits 
a  freer  play  of  the  shoulders,  and  indicates  staying  power. 
A  wide  chest  throws  the  fore  legs  out  of  line  with  the  hind  ones 
and  causes  the  horse  to  paddle  or  roll  in  his  action.  The  chest 
should  be  not  only  deep,  but  the  breast  should  be  carried  forward 
with  some  prominence. 

Shoulders.  —  To  give  elasticity  to  the  movement  and  to  per- 
mit of  quick  and  clean  action  the  shoulder  should  be  long  and 
sloping  well  into  the  back,  thus  strengthening  the  back  and 
extending  the  length  of  the  underline.  The  high  action  of  the 
coach  horse  and  the  long-reaching  clean  action  of  the  roadster 
depend  much  on  a  long  oblique  shoulder.  A  steep  shoulder 
prevents  a  strong  rapid  movement  and  results  in  hard  stilted 
action,  leading  to  defects  of  feet  and  legs. 

Arms.  • —  Among  light  horses  the  arm  should  be  short  and 
comparatively  upright,  giving  the  animal  an  upstanding  ap- 
pearance. 

Elbows.  —  The  elbow  should  work  snugly  alongside  the 
animal;  if  too  closely  "tied  in,"  as  it  is  termed,  the  toes  are 
usually  thrown  out;  if  turned  out,  the  toes  are  likely  to  be 
thrown  in. 

The  fore-arms  should  be  long,  wide,  and  well  muscled.  The 
capacity  of  the  animal  to  cover  much  ground  at  a  step  depends 
on  the  direction  of  the  shoulders  and  the  length  of  the  fore- 
arms. Long  sloping  shoulders,  upright  arms  together  with 
long  fore-arms,  give  much  distance  from  the  withers  to  the  knee, 
which  is  considered  very  essential  in  animals  of  speed.  The 
muscles  should  be  well  developed  and  stand  out  distinctly  just 
below  the  junction  of  the  leg  and  body  and  taper  gracefully 
downward.  The  fat  accumulates  very  little  at  this  point,  and 
it  is  a  safe  guide  to  the  muscular  development  of  the  animal. 


26  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  knees  should  be  wide,  deep,  and  straight.  They  should 
be  much  broader  in  front  than  the  rest  of  the  leg,  either  above 
or  below.  Breadth  is  desirable  because  the  concussion  is  more 
evenly  distributed  among  the  several  bones  forming  the  knee 
joint.  The  bone  forming  the  projection  at  the  back  of  the 
knee  should  be  prominent,  since  this  gives  a  better  attachment 
for  the  muscles  and  tendons  which  pass  over  it,  thereby  giving 
the  leg  a  deeper  appearance  and  increasing  the  efficiency.  The 
knees  are  subject  to  many  defects  more  or  less  serious,  such  as 
calf  knees,  knock  knees,  spring  knees,  open  knees,  speed  cuts, 
scars,  and  the  like. 

The  cannons  should  be  short,  wide,  clean,  and  the  tendons 
well  detached.  The  back  tendons  should  be  parallel  to  the 
cannon-bones,  and  there  should  be  no  shrinking  below  the 
knees,  as  it  indicates  weakness.  This  defect  is  spoken  of  as 
"  tied  in, "  and  is  quite  common  among  light  horses.  The  cannon 
should  be  free  from  bony  growths  and  puffiness.  Evidences  of 
firing  or  blistering  to  remove  such  growths  are  series  of  lines 
on  the  cannons  or  roughened  places  caused  by  blistering.  On 
running  the  hand  over  the  cannons  they  should  be  free  from 
gumminess,  puffs,  and  bony  growths. 

The  fetlock  joint  should  be  clean,  free  from  fullness  due  to 
wind-galls,  and  should  be  wide,  giving  favorable  attachments  to 
the  tendons. 

The  pasterns  should  be  sloping  and  strong.  When  the  horse 
is  standing,  they  should  form  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the 
floor  and  135  degrees  with  the  cannons.  The  upright  pasterns 
cannot  resist  concussion,  and  bone  diseases,  such  as  ring-bones, 
side-bones,  and  the  like,  are  the  result.  Again,  it  lessens  the 
usefulness  of  the  light  horse,  especially  the  saddler,  as  the  step 
is  short  and  stilted  and  very  disagreeable  to  the  rider.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  pasterns  are  sometimes  too  long  and  slanting, 
especially  among  thoroughbreds,  which  weakens  them,  and  occa- 
sionally ends  in  snapping  the  suspensory  ligaments,  resulting  in 


CHOOSING  A   HORSE  27 

the  animal  " breaking  down."  There  should  be  freedom  from 
wind  puffs  and  bony  growths,  as  in  the  cannon. 

The  feet  should  be  round,  dense,  fine  in  texture,  of  good  size, 
and  perfectly  sound.  They  should  be  of  equal  size  and  shape 
and  in  line  with  the  pastern.  The  hoof  should  have  an  oily 
coat  of  natural  wax,  and  should  not  appear  flat,  brittle,  shelly, 
or  contracted.  The  heel  should  be  rather  vertical  and  about 
one-half  length  of  toe.  The  sole  should  be  concave ;  the  bars 
strong,  and  the  frog  large,  elastic,  and  bear  the  mark  of  natural 
usage  as  a  buffer.     The  dark-colored  feet  seem  to  be  in  favor. 

The  ribs  should  be  well  sprung  from  the  spine,  of  good  length, 
and  well  inclined  to  the  rear.  The  well-sprung  rib  gives  lung 
capacity,  the  deep  rib  gives  digestive  capacity,  and  the  ribs 
well  inclined  to  the  rear  add  much  to  the  strength  of  the  back. 

Body.  —  The  back  should  be  short,  strong,  and  well  muscled. 
The  body  should  have  a  short  back  with  a  long  underline 
which  not  only  adds  strength  to  the  back,  but  gives  the  legs 
free  play  and  insures  freedom  of  movements.  The  long  back, 
the  roach  back,  and  the  sway  back   are  all  very  objectionable. 

The  loin  should  be  wide,  short,  thick,  and  strongly  joined. 
This  combination  results  when  the  ribs  are  directed  well  back- 
ward. If  the  distance  from  the  last  rib  to  the  hip  is  great,  the 
horse  is  likely  to  be  weak  in  the  coupling  and  irregular  in  his 
action. 

The  croup  should  be  long,  muscular,  and  fairly  straight.  The 
croup  of  light  horses  should  be  more  horizontal  than  in  heavy 
horses.  This  in  connection  with  its  length  allows  greater  play 
of  the  main  muscles,  which  is  favorable  to  the  production  of 
speed.  The  short,  oblique  croup  interferes  with  the  utility  of 
the  light  horse  and  detracts  from  the  general  appearance.  While 
examining  the  croup,  the  hips  should  also  be  observed  to  see 
that  they  are  of  equal  prominence  and  squarely  placed. 

The  thigh  should  be  muscular,  long,  and  deep.  It  should  be 
so  situated  as  to  extend  the  muscles  as  far  clown  towards  the 


28  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

hock  as  possible,  without  giving  the  leg  too  straight  an  appear- 
ance. Some  horses  are  so  straight  in  this  respect  that  the 
muscle  extends  to  the  hock,  giving  it  a  thick  appearance.  Horses 
show  much  variation  in  the  muscling  of  the  quarters;  some  are 
full  and  heavily  muscled,  some  decidedly  lacking  and  called 
"cat  hammed,"  while  others  are  fairly  full  in  this  region,  with 
deep,  hard  muscles. 

The  hind  legs  from  the  thigh  to  the  hock  should  be  long, 
fairly  straight,  and  well  muscled,  though  they  must  not  be  too 
straight,  thereby  causing  either  thoroughpin  or  bog-spavin. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  legs  are  bent  too  far  forward,  it  is 
likely  to  develop  curb.  The  position  of  the  croup  and  thighs, 
together  with  the  long  legs,  should  be  such  as  to  give  length 
from  the  hip  to  the  hock,  as  this  is  the  conformation  desired 
among  animals  of  speed. 

The  hocks  should  be  wide,  properly  set,  and  clean.  They 
should  also  be  free  from  gumminess,  fleshiness,  and  puffs  of  all 
kinds,  and  the  bone  firm  without  the  least  indication  of  unsound- 
ness. The  bone  forming  the  point  of  the  hock  should  be 
prominent,  since  this  gives  a  better  attachment  for  the  muscles 
and  tendons  which  pass  over  it,  thereby  giving  the  hind  leg  a 
deeper  appearance  and  increasing  its  efficiency.  The  hocks 
are  subject  to  many  defects  more  or  less  serious,  such  as  cow 
hocks,  capped  hocks,  open  hocks,  crooked  hocks,  and  the  like. 

The  hind  cannons  should  be  short,  wide,  clean,  with  tendons 
well  detached  and  parallel  to  cannon  bones,  which  gives 
better  attachments  and  strengthens  the  cannon.  Slender  hocks 
and  narrow  cannons,  especially  at  the  top,  indicate  a  predis- 
position to  curbs  on  account  of  the  weakness  thus  produced. 
The  cannon  should  be  free  from  all  evidences  of  unsoundness. 

The  hind  pasterns  should  be  sloping  and  strong.  When  the 
horse  is  standing,  they  will  be  more  upright  than  the  front 
pasterns,  and  this  is  not  so  objectionable  as  there  is  less  con- 
cussion on  the  hind  foot,  the  weight  borne  being  only  four- 


CHOOSING  A   HORSE  29 

ninths  that  of  the  total  weight,  and  in  addition  the  hind  limbs 
are  not  intended  to  break  concussion  as  are  the  fore  limbs. 

The  hind  feet  should  be  oval,  dense,  fine  in  texture,  of  good 
size,  and  perfectly  sound.  They  are  inclined  to  become 
narrow,  the  sides  often  appear  sunken,  leaving  them  rather  flat, 
thus  causing  the  foot  to  appear  narrow.  The  hind  feet  should 
have  the  characteristics  that  have  been  described  in  the  refer- 
ence to  the  desirable  points  of  the  fore  feet. 

CHOOSING    A    HEAVY   HORSE 

In  choosing  a  heavy  horse,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
fatter  the  animal  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  detect  many  of  the 
defects  which  would  stand  out  clearly  were  the  animal  not 
padded  with  a  thick  coat  of  fat.  A  horse  in  serviceable  condi- 
tion will  often  show  many  defects,  especially  in  the  body,  that  a 
thick  coating  of  tissue  will  hide.  By  changing  the  food  one  can 
increase  or  diminish  the  size  of  the  abdomen:  thus  by  feeding 
food  containing  much  bulk,  the  shape  of  the  narrow-gutted  horse 
is  modified ;  by  feeding  concentrated  foods,  such  as  oats,  the 
cow-belly  can  be  made  to  disappear.  By  regulating  the  light 
in  the  stable  and  increasing  the  temperature,  the  coat  can  be 
made  to  assume  brighter  shades  and  to  reflect  a  more  brilliant 
luster.  By  removing  or  clipping  the  hairs  scattered  over  the 
face,  around  the  mouth,  nostrils,  eyelids,  along  the  lower  jaw; 
in  diminishing  the  thickness  and  length  of  the  mane  and  tail; 
in  clipping  the  thick  hairs  along  the  cannons  and  pasterns ;  and 
finally  in  cutting  the  hairs  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  ears,  the 
apparent  quality  of  the  horse  can  be  greatly  changed  and  a 
rough,  coarse  animal  can  be  made  to  take  on  a  rather  refined 
appearance. 

General  appearance  in  heavy  horses 

The  same  general  method  should  be  followed  in  examining  a 
heavy  horse  as  in  the  light,  with  the  difference,  that  we  place 
much  stress  on  weight. 


30 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


The  form.  —  In  form,  the  draft  horse  should  be  massive, 
compact,  blocky,  and  low  set.  Power  and  not  speed  is  the  re- 
quirement, and  in  order  to  attain  this  the  animal  must  be 


Fig.  23. — Clydesdale  Stallion  "Calipt."    Second  Prize,  International  Live 
Stock  Show,  Alex.  Galbraith,  Dixon,  111. 

The  Clydesdale  draft  horse  originated  in  Scotland.  An  active  breed,  though 
not  so  heavy  as  the  Shire  or  so  massive  as  the  Percheron.  In  weight  stallions 
average  1600  to  2000  pounds,  the  mares  1400  to  1700  pounds.  The  height 
ranges  from  15  to  16%  hands.  Bay  or  brown  with  white  on  forehead  and  on 
the  legs  below  the  knees  and  hocks  is  the  most  popular  color,  though  there  are 
many  blacks,  grays,  and  chestnuts.  As  with  the  Shire,  the  long  hair  on  the 
back  of  cannons  below  the  knees  and  hocks  is  a  breed  characteristic. 


close  to  the  ground,  strong,  and  heavy.  In  animals  of  speed  we 
find  long  bones,  long  muscles,  and  slightly  angular  joints;  in 
animals  of  strength  we  find  heavy  bones,  heavy  muscles,  and  a 
comparative  freedom  from  angularity  about  the  joints. 


CHOOSING   A   HORSE  31 

The  weight.  —  Among  draft  horses,  weight  is  a  very  impor- 
tant consideration;  in  iact,  a  horse  must  weigh  at  least  1500 
pounds  to  be  classed  as  a  draft  animal.  Draft  horses  are 
divided  into  three  classes  according  to  their  weight :  light  draft, 
1500  to  1600  pounds;  medium  draft,  1600  to  1800  pounds;  and 
heavy  draft,  1800  pounds  and  up.  This  weight  must  be  due 
to  strong  bone,  heavily  muscled,  as  well  as  to  large  proportions, 
and  not  the  result  of  excessive  fatness. 

The  importance  of  bulk  is  well  illustrated  in  the  case  of 
the  freight  engine,  in  which  the  efficiency  depends  upon  the 
weight  to  such  an  extent  that  engines  are  graded  according  to 
their  weight ;  thus  we  have  the  hundred  ton  freight  engine  on  a 
certain  section  of  the  road  and  the  hundred  and  twenty-five 
ton  engine  on  another  section.  The  engine  must  have  much 
weight  to  keep  the  wheels  from  slipping  on  the  track.  Such  is 
none  the  less  the  case  among  draft  horses.  This  is  well  illus- 
trated in  the  rather  common  experience  of  the  teamster  whose 
team  is  stalled,  and  observing  that  the  animals  seem  too 
light  to  push  into  the  collar,  conceives  the  idea  of  mounting 
one  of  the  animals,  when  to  his  satisfaction  they  are  able  to 
pull  the  load.  Illustrations  of  this  principle  are  very  common 
in  parts  of  the  country  where  the  heavy  cart  is  used  in  which 
the  animal  carries  a  part  of  the  load  on  its  back.  It  frequently 
happens  with  vehicles  of  this  kind  that  when  the  animal  is 
stalled,  if  a  part  of  the  load  is  moved  forward  so  that  a  larger 
portion  rests  on  the  back,  it  can  pull  the  load  with  comparative 
ease. 

The  heavy  horse  is  in  very  great  demand  for  draft  work 
in  the  cities.  In  our  large  cities  the  busy  streets  have  be- 
come so  crowded  that  it  is  necessary  for  the  traffic  to  move 
slow.  This  has  led  to  the  use  of  larger  loads  and  fewer  trips, 
whereas  formerly  more  trips  were  made  and  the  loads  lighter. 
To  draw  these  heavy  loads  requires  heavy  horses;  thus 
within  the  past  few  years  there  has  arisen  a  great  demand 


32 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


for  the  heavy  horse.  For  this  extra  weight  the  market  is  will- 
ing to  pay.  It  is  estimated  that  the  heavy  horse  is  worth  50 
cents  a  pound  for  each  additional  pound  that  it  weighs  over 
1400  pounds.  In  other  words,  a  thin  horse  weighing  1400 
pounds  and  worth  $200  would  be  worth  $250  if  put  in  good 
condition  and  weighing  1500  pounds. 

The  action.  —  While  action  in  the  heavy  horse  is  not  con- 
sidered as  desirable  as  in  the  lighter  types,  yet  it  should  receive 

much  attention.  The  walk  de- 
serves special  notice  since  it  is 
the  principal  gait  of  the  draft 
horse.  It  should  be  observed 
in  much  the  same  manner  as 
in  the  lighter  types  —  from 
before,  behind,  and  either  side. 
The  horse  should  lift  the  feet 
clear  of  the  ground  with  much 
snap,  and  the  stride  should  be 

Fig.  24.  —  Clydesdale  Mare.    First     regular.  Observe       the     fore 

Show.     International     Live"Stock    and   hind   legs    to  see  if  they 

work  in  unison.  Horses  with 
long  backs  and  weak  loins  often  drag  their  feet  in  a  discon- 
nected manner.  Observed  from  behind,  the  movement  should 
be  straight  away  and  regular.  The  hocks  are  often*turned 
outward,  or  bent  inward  when  raised,  both  of  which  are  very 
undesirable.  The  flexion  of  the  hock  should  be  free  and 
straight. 

While  action  at  the  trot  is  not  so  essential  as  in  light  horses, 
yet  the  draft  horse  in  trotting  should  go  level,  straight,  and 
regular.  The  feet  should  be  picked  up  with  snap  and  carried 
clear  of  the  ground.  High  knee  and  hock  action  is  not 
essential,  but  a  strong,  full,  true  movement  without  paddling, 
dragging,  or  stiffness  is  very  desirable.  Good  trotting  action 
is  not  only  valuable    in    itself,  but  it  indicates  many  other 


CHOOSING  A   HORSE  33 

desirable   qualities,  such   as  temperament,  conformation,  and 
soundness. 

Quality  among  heavy  horses  is  as  essential  as  among  light 
ones,  and  the  evidences  are  the  same  —  clean-cut  features,  soft 
skin,  silky  hair,  and  clean,  dense  bone.  The  lines  of  the  face 
will  not  be  as  clearly  defined  nor  the  veins  in  the  skin  show  as 
prominently  as  in  the  light  type.  Quality  is  determined  in  the 
same  way,  and  in  running  the  hand  over  the  cannon  the  bone 
should  be  flat,  firm,  and  free  from  roughness  and  the  tendons 
should  stand  out  distinct  from  the  bone.  Among  draft  horses 
the  mistake  is  sometimes  made  of  considering  small  bone  to  be  an 
indication  of  quality,  which  should  be  guarded  against,  as  small 
bone  is  a  very  undesirable  feature  in  a  draft  horse. 

Detail  characters  of  heavy  horses 

In  considering  the  characters  in  detail  among  heavy  horses 
the  same  general  order  should  be  followed  as  in  the  lighter 
types,  in  order  that  no  character  go  unobserved.  Only  the 
differences  are  here  pointed  out,  and  those  characters  that  are 
the  same  in  both  types  are  omitted. 

The  head  should  be  lean  and  of  medium  size.  The  heads  of 
draft  horses  are  as  a  rule  larger,  fuller,  and  coarser  proportion- 
ately than  in  the  light  type.  Many  of  the  breeds  of  draft 
horses  have  a  characteristic  Roman  nose.  The  assertion  is  often 
made  that  small  nostrils  is  associated  with  a  Roman  nose,  and 
consequently  the  respiratory  or  breathing  organs  lack  develop- 
ment ;  also  that  animals  with  very  prominent  Roman  noses  are 
self-willed.  Both  statements  seem  to  lack  sufficient  evidence, 
and  the  opinion  may  owe  its  origin  to  a  few  observations  made 
on  Standard-bred  animals.  The  nostrils,  eyes,  jaws,  and  ears 
should  be  observed  as  among  light  horses. 

The  neck  should  be  short,  strongly  muscled,  and  massive.  A 
well-arched  neck  is  preferred.  The  neck  of  a  draft  horse  is 
more  horizontal  than  in  horses  of  speed. 


34  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  chest  should  be  deep,  wide,  and  full.  Its  depth  is  about 
one-half  height  of  horse.  Horses  slack  in  the  heart  girth  are 
generally  of  weak  constitution.  Exceptional  width  in  the  chest 
is  likely  to  result  in  rolling  and  paddling  motion  of  the  fore  legs. 

Shoulders.  —  Among  heavy  horses,  the  shoulder  should  be 
moderately  sloping  into  the  back  and  heavily  muscled.  The 
statement  is  made  that  upright  shoulders  give  increased  power, 
but  such  a  conformation  increases  the  concussion  of  the  bones 
and  may  result  in  unsound  limbs ;  it  also  increases  the  length 
of  the  back,  which  may  result  in  weakness ;  and  the  step  is 
short  and  the  action  stilted. 

The  arm  should  be  short,  heavily  muscled,  and  sloping  well 
to  the  rear,  thus  giving  the  animal  a  massive  and  low-set  ap- 
pearance. 

Fore-arms.  —  Among  draft  horses,  the  fore-arms  should  be 
wide,  heavily  muscled,  and  large.  As  in  the  light  type,  the 
muscling  affords  a  safe  guide  to  the  muscle  development  of  the 
animal,  as  it  is  not  padded  with  fat. 

The  knees  should  be  broad  and  well  defined.  While  the  knees  of 
heavy  animals  may  not  be  as  clean  cut  as  among  lighter  horses, 
yet  there  should  be  a  freedom  from  puffiness   and  gumminess. 

The  cannon  should  be  short,  wide,  clean,  and  the  tendons 
well  detached.  The  Clydesdales  and  Shires  have  a  fringe  of 
hair,  called  " feather,"  starting  from  the  knee  and  hock  behind 
and  extending  to  the  fetlock.  The  " feather"  often  furnishes 
an  index  to  the  quality,  as  coarse  hair  is  associated  with  coarse, 
thick  skin,  which  indicates  coarse,  porous  bone.  On  the  other 
hand,  fine,  soft  hair  is  commonly  accepted  as  an  indication  of  good 
quality. 

Pasterns.  —  Among  draft  horses  the  pasterns  should  be  slop- 
ing, strong,  and  of  medium  length.  Horses  of  this  type  often 
possess  pasterns  that  are  too  short  and  too  straight.  This  con- 
formation lacks  springiness,  the  concussion  comes  more  on  the 
ends  of  the  bones,  resulting  in  ring-bones,  side-bones,  and  the 


CHOOSING   A    HOUSE 


35 


like,  also  in  a  short  stilted  movement  of  the  legs.  Again,  pas- 
terns that  are  too  straight  often  become  more  so  with  age,  and 
the  usefulness  of  the  animal  depreciates  in  proportion. 


Fig.   25. —  Champion  English  Shire   Stallion  "Dan  Patch." 
Pioneer  Stock  Farm,  Bushnell,  111. 


Trumans 


The  Shire  draft  horse  was  developed  in  England.  This  breed  has  long  been 
noted  as  the  "Cart  Horse"  ;  for  heavy  draft  it  is  unexcelled.  In  size,  Shires 
are  equal  to  the  largest  stallions,  ranging  from  1700  to  2200  pounds,  with  the 
mares  correspondingly  less.  In  height  stallions  average  from  15  to  17  hands. 
The  preferred  color  is  bay  or  brown  with  white  on  the  forehead  and  on  the  legs 
below  the  knees  and  hocks.  Grays,  blacks,  and  chestnuts  exist  in  abundance. 
Long  hair  on  the  back  of  the  cannons  below  the  knees  and  hocks  is  a  breed 
characteristic. 


The  feet  of  the  heavy  horse  deserve  special  attention,  as  sound 
feet  are  rather  the  exception.  The  feet  should  be  round,  dense, 
fine  in  structure,  of  equal  size  and  shape,  and  perfectly  sound. 
The  hoof  should  be  dark  in  color,  and  have  an  oily  coat  of 
natural  wax.     Common  defects  of  the  feet  of  heavy  horses  are : 


36  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

soft  hoof,  dry  and  broken  hoof,  flat  hoof,  low  or  sloping  heels, 
and  large  hoof. 

The  body  should  be  short,  the  back  broad,  and  the  ribs  well 
sprung,  deep,  and  inclined  well  to  the  rear,  thus  giving  a  short 
loin,  which  should  be  broad  and  thick.  The  upright  shoulder 
gives  undue  length  to  the  back,  which  may  become  roached  or 
sunken. 

The  croup  should  be  broad,  thickly  muscled,  and  moderately 
sloping,  although  there  is  considerable  difference  in  draft  horses 
in  this  regard.  A  moderately  sloping  croup  gives  a  favorable 
attachment  of  the  muscles  for  the  production  of  power.  In 
some  strains  of  draft  horses,  the  croup  is  so  very  sloping  that  it 
detracts  from  their  general  appearance. 

The  thighs  and  quarters  should  be  heavily  muscled.  The 
direction  of  the  thigh  should  be  such  as  to  give  the  muscles 
the  most  favorable  attachment  for  the  development  of  power. 
This  means  perhaps  that  the  lower  part  of  the  thigh  should 
be  inclined  well  forward,  and  that  the  leg  should  be  moderately 
sloping  from  the  thigh  to  the  hock. 

The  hock  of  the  heavy  horse  should  be  closely  observed,  for 
in  this  joint  there  is  perhaps  more  work  done  than  in  any  other 
single  part  of  the  body.  The  hock  should  be  wide,  properly 
set,  and  clearly  defined.  The  tendons  extending  from  the 
hocks  downward  should  be  lean  and  well  detached,  thus  giving 
a  deeper-appearing  hock  and  a  more  favorable  attachment  of  the 
muscles  for  developing  power.  Crooked,  narrow,  and  tied-in 
hocks  are  subject  to  curbs,  spavin,  and  the  like.  The  hocks  of 
draft  horses  are  likely  to  be  fleshy  or  gummy,  thus  indicating 
a  liability  to  hock  troubles  and  a  general  coarseness  of  the 
organization. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  FEEDING   OF  ANIMALS  —  GENERAL  DISCUSSION 

The  economic  feeding  of  farm  animals  involves  a  knowledge 
of  the  principles  underlying  the  practice.  The  better  knowl- 
edge one  has  of  the  food,  its  source,  use,  composition,  and  di- 
gestibility, the  more  familiar  he  is  with  the  function  of  the 
various  food  materials,  and  the  balancing  of  rations,  the  more 
intelligently  can  he  choose  the  foods  that  constitute  the  ration. 

FOOD 

Food  may  be  denned  as  any  material  that  an  animal  can 
take  into  its  digestive  organs  and  from  which  it  can  absorb 
matter  for  the  nourishment  of  its  own  body.  Plants  and  their 
products  and  by-products  constitute  the  food  of  farm  animals, 
although  some  farm  animals  are  in  part  carnivorous,  feeding 
on  other  animals  or  parts  of  animals.  Matter  is  transferred 
directly  from  the  food  to  the  tissue  with  or  without  chemical 
or  physical  change.  Materials  is  not,  however,  the  only  thing 
the  animal  gets  from  the  food.  The  plant  during  growth  absorbs 
heat  from  the  sun,  which  is  held  in  latent  form  in  the  plant 
compounds.  When  these  compounds  are  taken  into  the  ani- 
mal body  and  broken  apart  by  digestion,  some  of  this  stored 
heat  may  be  transferred  to  energy.  The  animal  therefore  gets 
from  the  food  both  matter  and  energy. 

Use  of  food.  —  The  matter  and  energy  the  animal  collects 
from  the  food  are  put  to  three  distinct  uses :  first,  to  support 
life;  second,  to  reproduce  life;    and  third,  stored  up  in  some 

37 


38  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

form.  The  animal  must  maintain  its  existence,  and  for  this 
both  energy  and  matter  are  required.  A  large  part  of  the  energy 
of  the  food  goes  to  the  maintenance  of  the  body  temperature. 
The  body  temperature  of  farm  animals  is  considerably  above  that 
of  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  and  its  maintenance  requires 
much  heat,  as  the  body  is  continually  giving  off  heat.  The 
body  tissues  become  worn  out  and  must  be  constantly  renewed. 
This  must  be  supplied  by  the  matter  and  energy  from  the  food. 
In  the  case  of  young  animals,  there  is  a  constant  formation  of 
new  tissue.  This  requires  more  matter  than  energy.  Again,  the 
muscular  function  of  vital  processes  require  much  energy,  which 
must  be  supplied  by  the  food.  Of  the  total  amount  of  food 
that  an  animal  will  ordinarily  consume,  a  very  large  proportion 
goes  to  support  life  and  a  small  amount  to  production. 

Composition  of  food.  —  The  value  of  a  food  depends,  among 
other  things,  on  its  composition.  There  is  a  tendency  to  ig- 
nore the  fact  that  a  food  should  be  considered  with  reference  to 
its  composition.  It  is  assumed  that  a  pound  of  timothy  hay, 
for  example,  is  equivalent  to  a  pound  of  clover  hay,  when  as  a 
matter  of  fact  their  composition  is  such  as  to  make  them  widely 
different,  so  that  one  will  not  take  the  place  of  the  other.  The 
number  of  compounds  found  in  the  food  is  very  large,  and  many 
of  them  very  complex  in  their  nature.  For  convenience  in 
comparing  foods,  these  compounds  are  grouped  into  classes. 
These  classes  are  few  in  number,  easy  to  comprehend,  and  serve 
the  purpose  well  from  a  practical  point  of  view.  We  recognize 
five  distinct  groups,  one  of  which  is  divided  into  two  sub-groups. 
They  are  as  follows  :  — 


1.  Water 

2.  Ash  (mineral  compounds) 

3.  Protein  (nitrogenous  compounds) 

4.  Carbohydrates  { ^^-free  extract 

5.  Fats 


Nutrients 


Dry- 
matter 


It  is  customary  to  group  together  all  the  substances  of  a  food 


THE  FEEDING   OF  ANIMALS  39 

except  the  water,  and  to  speak  of  them  collectively  as  dry- 
matter,  and  not  with  respect  to  their  total  weight.  Ash  is  also 
eliminated,  and  the  remaining  three  constituents  are  called  nu- 
trients. Each  of  these  groups  has  its  part  to  perform  in  the  nu- 
trition of  animals,  the  function  of  one  being  different  from  the 
others.  There  are  a  few  foods  containing  these  several  constitu- 
ents in  the  proper  proportions  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  animal, 
but  in  most  foods  there  is  an  excess  of  one  and  a  deficiency  of  the 
others.  This  makes  it  desirable  to  add  two  or  more  foods  of 
different  composition  in  order  to  supply  the  proper  balance  for 
the  best  development  of  the  animal. 

Water.  —  Water  is  present  in  all  foods,  even  the  driest.  It 
varies  widely  in  different  foods,  running  as  low  as  8  or  10  per  cent 
in  the  case  of  grains  or  concentrates,  such  as  corn,  oats,  or  cotton- 
seed meal,  and  dried  brewers'  grains,  to  85  or  90  per  cent  in  the 
more  watery  foods,  as  silage,  roots,  tubers,  and  the  like.  Even 
dry  hay  varies  considerably  in  this  respect,  alfalfa  containing  as 
low  as  9  per  cent  and  some  clovers  as  high  as  20  per  cent.  Water 
not  being  a  nutrient,  its  presence  or  absence  is  an  important  fac- 
tor in  determining  the  usefulness  and  therefore  the  value  of  a  food. 

Ash.  —  Ash  or  mineral  matter  is  present  in  all  plant  food, 
although  it  forms  but  a  small  part,  shelled  corn  containing  only 
1.5  per  cent,  and  alfalfa,  one  of  the  highest,  containing  only  8 
per  cent.  The  leaves  and  the  region  of  the  germ  in  grain  contain 
the  most  ash.  The  animal  secures  the  ash  from  the  food  directly 
by  transfer.  Most  plants  contain  sufficient  ash  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  animal,  corn  and  certain  prepared  foods  being  the 
only  exceptions.  In  young  animals,  because  of  the  large  bone 
development  that  is  taking  place,  in  milk  and  egg  production 
and  the  like,  it  is  of  special  importance  to  have  sufficient 
mineral  matter  supplied  by  the  food. 

Protein.  —  Of  the  three  nutrients  —  protein,  carbohydrates, 
and  fats  —  the  protein  is  considered  to  be  the  most  important. 
This  is  perhaps  due  to  two  factors;    first,  protein  is  absolutely 


40 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  26.  —  Champion    English    Shire 
Stallion  "Mazemore  Harold." 


essential  to  the  animal  body,  and  second,  the  percentage  of  pro- 
tein is  relatively  small  in  most  plants.     Like  the  other  nutrients, 

the  protein  group  contains 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen, 
and  in  addition  it  also  con- 
tains nitrogen,  which  is  the 
characteristic  element  of  the 
entire  group.  It  is  on  the 
element  nitrogen  that  the  im- 
portance of  this  group  de- 
pends. Protein  enters  largely 
into  the  composition  of  the 
bones,  muscle,  lean  meat, 
white  of  egg,  and  the  curd  of 
milk.  The  only  source  from 
which  the  animals  can  procure  this  protein  is  the  protein  of 
the  food. 

The  amount  of  digestible  protein  in  various  foods  varies 
within  rather  wide  limits,  corn  containing  only  8  per  cent,  while 
cotton-seed  meal  runs  as  high  as  32  per  cent,  but  the  larger 
number  of  food  materials  contain  rather  small  amounts  of  pro- 
tein. There  are  comparatively  few  foods  that  are  relatively 
rich  in  protein.  The  value  of  the  food  turns  very  largely  on 
the  protein  which  it  contains.  Protein  is  not,  however,  as 
digestible  as  some  of  the  other  nutrients. 

Carbohydrates.  —  There  are  two  sub-groups  of  carbohydrates 
—  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  crude  fiber.  The  carbohydrate 
group  contains  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  but  no  nitrogen. 
The  nitrogen-free  extract  is  composed  largely  of  starches  and 
sugars,  and  constitutes  the  larger  part  of  the  dry-matter  of  most 
plants.  Starch  alone  forms  as  much  as  75  per  cent  of  the  dry- 
matter  of  corn,  wheat,  potatoes,  and  some  other  foods.  It  is 
easily  digested,  more  so  than  any  of  the  other  three  constituents, 
and  therefore  foods  rich  in  nitrogen-free  extract  are  ordinarily 


THE  FEEDING   OF  ANIMALS  41 

classed  as  most  readily  digestible.  Fiber  or  crude  fiber  consti- 
tutes the  tough  woody  part  of  plants.  The  stems  of  all  plants 
contain  more  fiber  than  does  the  leafy  part.  Variation  in  the 
digestibility  of  foods  depends  largely  on  the  amount  of  crude 
fiber,  which  is  mostly  insoluble  and  hence  largely  indigestible. 
Crude  fiber  is  the  least  valuable  of  the  four  nutrients,  because 
of  its  indigestibility.  Young  plants  contain  less  crude  fiber 
than  plants  that  have  matured  and  formed  seeds,  and  hence  are 
more  digestible. 

Fat.  —  Plants  also  contain  fat  or  oil.  It  occurs  in  largest 
quantities  in  the  seed,  and  varies  widely,  running  less  than  2  per 
cent  in  rye  to  30  and  35  per  cent  in  flaxseed.  Fats  like  carbo- 
hydrates contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  but  no  nitrogen. 
The  oil  content  of  food  is  determined  by  extracting  the  fat  by 
ether ;  hence  in  tables  giving  composition  of  food  the  fat  is  often 
designated  as  ether  extract.  A  given  weight  of  fat  will  develop 
2\  times  as  much  heat  energy  as  an  equal  weight  of  carbohy- 
drates. If  we  multiply  fat,  therefore,  by  2\}  it  reduces  it  to  the 
starch  or  carbohydrate  equivalent.  Fats  are  not  so  readily  di- 
gested as  nitrogen-free  extract. 

Functions  of  various  food  materials 

A  knowledge  of  the  function  of  the  various  food  materials 
will  enable  one  to  choose  and  balance  a  ration  more  economical^, 
and  to  adapt  it  to  the  needs  of  the  animal.  A  very  satisfactory 
ration  for  a  race  horse  may  be  entirely  inadequate  for  a  dairy 
cow. 

Water.  —  The  water  of  the  food  takes  the  place  to  a  certain 
extent  of  the  water  that  an  animal  would  otherwise  drink.  In 
the  case  of  food  containing  a  large  amount  of  water,  the  total 
consumption  of  water  by  the  animal  will  be  greater  than  other- 
wise. Watery  foods  will  not,  however,  satisfy  the  animal  in  this 
respect,  as  it  will  still  drink  water.  In  many  cases  the  large 
consumption  of  water  is  of  advantage  to  the  animal ;    this  is 


42  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

particularly  true  of  the  dairy  cow,  which,  in  addition  to  the 
water  needed  for  her  own  body,  secretes  large  amounts  in  the  milk. 
The  animal  body  requires  much  water,  particularly  the  younger 
ones ;  their  bodies  are  more  than  50  per  cent  water.  Again,  water 
adds  succulence  to  the  food,  which  increases  its  palat ability. 
The  great  importance  of  an  abundance  of  good  water  for  all 
animals  is  often  underestimated. 

Ash.  —  The  ash  or  mineral  matter  is  chiefly  used  in  the  for- 
mation of  bone,  but  also  to  some  extent  in  the  tissues,  blood, 
digestive  fluids,  and  the  like.  Young  animals  fail  to  develop  if 
given  no  mineral  matter,  and  mature  animals  become  weak  and 
inactive  if  deprived  of  only  one  substance,  that  of  common  salt. 
Hogs,  if  closely  confined  and  fed  on  corn  alone,  are  likely  to  be 
weak-boned  because  of  the  lack  of  mineral  matter  in  the  food. 
If  to  the  corn  ration  some  food  rich  in  mineral  matter,  such  as 
alfalfa,  or  even  wood  ashes,  is  added,  no  difficulty  is  experienced. 
Hens  always  require  more  lime  than  is  found  in  the  food.  This 
is  strikingly  illustrated  when  we  compare  the  composition  of 
eggs  and  corn,  for  example,  the  former  containing  12.2  per  cent 
ash,  the  latter  only  1.5  per  cent.  The  ash  in  the  food  of  the 
milk  cow  also  deserves  special  consideration  on  account  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  lime,  and  potash  so  abundantly  found  in  the  milk 
which  she  secretes.  In  short,  the  ash  or  mineral  matter  in  the 
food  of  all  animals,  young  and  old,  deserves  much  consideration. 

Protein.  —  So  far  as  is  known,  the  proteids  of  the  food  are  the 
only  source  of  the  proteids  of  the  body.  In  other  words,  the 
muscles,  the  connective  tissues,  the  blood,  the  skin,  the  hair, 
the  horn,  the  hoofs,  and  the  larger  part  of  the  tissues  of  the 
secretive  and  excretive  organs  owe  their  formation  to  the  protein 
of  the  food.  Since  these  are  the  tissues  that  largely  determine 
the  vigor  and  quality  of  the  animal,  and  since  they  are  formed 
rapidly  in  the  early  stages  of  growth,  a  normal  and  continuous 
development  demands  an  abundant  supply  of  protein  food.  In 
addition  to  this,  protein  is  a  source  of  fat  and  can  serve  as  fuel,  or 


THE  FEEDING   OF  ANIMALS  43 

as  a  source  of  energy.  The  amount  appropriated  as  fat  and 
energy  depends  on  the  quantity  fed  to  the  animal.  A  pound  of 
protein,  however,  is  worth  more  than  a  pound  of  carbohydrates 
on  the  market.  Then  to  use  protein  substances  largely  as  a 
source  of  fat  and  energy,  where  cheaper  substances  would  do 
fully  as  well  and  perhaps  better,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  is  not 
economical.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  protein  in  the  food  is  in- 
sufficient fully  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  animal,  the  very  best 
development  will  not  be  attained.  The  economy  of  feeding, 
therefore,  depends  largely  on  the  balance  between  the  protein 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  remaining  nutrients  on  the  other 
hand.  It  is  to  secure  sufficient  protein  and  yet  not  to  use  it  waste- 
fully  that  so  much  attention  is  given  to  the  proper  balancing  of  a 
ration. 

Carbohydrates.  —  Carbohydrates  are  used  to  maintain  heat 
and  in  the  production  of  fat.  Formerly  it  was  thought  that 
carbohydrates  are  used  for  that  purpose  only,  but  it  is  now 
well  established  that  the  animal  fats  may  have  their  source 
in  the  carbohydrates.  Again,  experiments  with  milk  cows 
show  clearly  that  milk-fat  may  also  be  derived  from  carbo- 
hydrates. The  fact  that  carbohydrates  can  be  used  as  heat- 
producers  and  as  fat-formers,  connected  with  their  ease  of  digestion 
and  cheapness  of  production,  tends  to  magnify  the  importance 
of  this  group  of  nutrients. 

Fat.  —  Fat,  like  carbohydrates,  serves  as  a  source  of  heat  and 
of  animal  fat.  The  differences  are  that  the  supply  of  carbohy- 
drates is  much  the  larger,  and  the  heat  value  of  a  similar  weight 
of  fats  much  the  greater,  —  as  we  have  already  seen  2^  times  as 
great.  Moreover,  there  seems  to  be  experimental  evidence 
showing  vegetable  fat  to  become  deposited  in  the  animal  without 
change,  whereas  fat  formed  from  carbohydrates  involves  com- 
plex transformation. 

From  the  foregoing  statements,  it  is  evident  that  the  water 
taken  into  the  animal  serves  as  the  water  of  the  animal  body. 


44  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  ash  or  mineral  matter  taken  in  serves  as  the  mineral  matter 
of  the  animal  body.  The  protein  acquired  may  serve  a  three- 
fold purpose ;  it  must  serve  as  the  proteid  supply  of  the  animal 
body,  as,  so  far  as  known,  there  is  no  other  source ;  it  may  serve 
in  heat  production;  and  it  may  serve  as  a  fat-former.  The 
carbohydrates  serve  a  double  purpose,  that  of  heat-production 
and  fat-forming.  The  fat  serves  a  similar  purpose  as  the  carbohy- 
drates —  forming  fat  and  producing  heat  —  and  is  2\  times  as 
efficient  as  the  carbohydrates. 

DIGESTIBILITY    OF    FOOD 

The  value  of  a  food  depends  on  the  digestibility  of  the 
various  materials  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  not  alone  on  its 
composition  as  shown  by  a  chemist.  Because  of  the  importance 
of  the  digestibility  of  the  various  food  materials,  and  in  order 
to  get  a  clear  conception  of  digestion,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
review  briefly  the  process  through  which  the  food  materials 
must  pass  on  their  way  from  the  food  as  such  to  the  flesh  or 
energy  of  the  animal  body. 

Digestion.  —  The  process  of  digestion  is  largely  a  process  of 
solution,  aided  to  a  certain  extent  by  chemical  changes  that  take 
place  through  the  influence  of  various  ferments  with  which  the 
food  comes  in  contact  as  it  passes  through  the  digestive  tract. 
The  digestive  organs  form  a  canal  through  the  body,  and  the 
food  in  its  passage  through  this  tract  or  canal  is  acted  upon  by 
various  fluids.  Each  fluid  has  a  special  work  to  do  in  the  pro- 
cess of  digestion.  To  begin,  the  food  is  taken  into  the  mouth, 
where  it  is  reduced  to  fine  particles  in  order  that  the  digestive 
juices  may  better  do  their  work  and  to  put  it  into  condition  to  be 
swallowed.  During  this  mastication  there  is  a  digestive  fluid, 
called  saliva,  poured  upon  the  food,  which  moistens  it  and  changes 
a  part  of  the  starch.  After  leaving  the  mouth  the  food  passes 
down  the  esophagus  into  the  stomach,  where  the  digestive 
fluid,  called  gastric  juice,  is  poured  upon  it  and  which  changes  a 


THE  FEEDING   OF  ANIMALS  45 

part  of  the  protein.  When  the  food  leaves  the  stomach,  it  enters 
the  small  intestines,  where  it  comes  in  contact  with  two  digestive 
fluids  —  the  bile  from  the  liver, 
and  the  pancreatic  juice  from  the 
pancreas.  The  bile  prepares  the 
partly  digested  food  for  the  ac- 
tion of  the  pancreatic  juice  and 
changes  the  fats.  The  pancreatic 
juice  has  a  more  complex  func- 
tion. It  contains  at  least  three 
distinct  ferments,  one  changing 
the  proteids,  another  the  starch, 

i     ,1        ji  •   j    ji        £    i  a       j. i_       Fig.   27. — Wrydelands      "Sun- 

and  the  third  the  fats.  As  the  SHINE>»  Champion  ShiRE  Mare. 
material  passes  along  the  intes- 
tines it  comes  in  contact  with  a  juice  secreted  by  the  walls 
of  the  intestines  and  which  acts  upon  the  starch,  but  there  is 
no  action  on  the  proteids  or  fats.  From  the  time  the  food 
enters  the  stomach,  during  its  entire  course  along  the  digestive 
tract,  in  some  way  not  wholly  understood,  the  digested  food  has 
been  absorbed  and  received  into  vessels,  through  which  it  is 
distributed  to  the  various  parts  of  the  body.  A  part  of  the  food 
materials,  however,  in  passing  through  the  digestive  tract,  es- 
cape digestion.  The  amount  of  food  digested  depends  on  the 
kind  of  food,  the  amount  fed,  the  class  of  animal,  and  on  the 
condition  of  the  animal's  health. 

Size  of  digestive  organs.  —  The  length  and  capacity  of  the  di- 
gestive organs  of  the  various  farm  animals  differ  widely.  Among 
ruminating  animals,  —  those  capable  of  re-chewing  the  previ- 
ously swallowed  food,  —  the  cow,  sheep,  and  goat,  the  stomach 
is  a  very  complicated  organ.  It  has  four  divisions  or  sacks 
called  paunch,  honeycomb,  many-plies,  and  rennet.  The 
paunch  is  very  large  and  may  be  considered  as  a  reservoir  for  the 
storage  of  bulky  foods.  Because  of  this  provision,  ruminating 
animals  can  be  fed  on  foods  containing  much  more  bulk  than  can 


46 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


the  pig  or  horse.  The  food  during  its  retention  in  the  paunch 
becomes  thoroughly  softened  and  undergoes  some  fermentation, 
then  it  is  re-chewed,  —  called  chewing  the  cud, —  and  swallowed. 
The  stomach  of  the  horse  and  pig  is  a  single  sack  and  has  not 
nearly  so  much  capacity. 

The  varying  length  of  intestines  and  capacity  of  stomach 
in  farm  animals  is  illustrated  in  the  following  table  :  — 

Length  of  intestines  and  capacity  of  stomach  of  farm  animals 


Animals 

Capacity 

Quarts 

Total 

Length,  Feet 

Stomach 

Intestines 

Intestines 

Horse 

19.0 

204.8 

223.8 

98.1 

Cow 

266.9 

109.8 

376.7 

187.2 

Sheep     

31.3 

15.4 

46.7 

107.3 

Hog 

8.5 

20.5 

29.0 

77.1 

It  requires  three  to  four  days  for  food  to  pass  through  the  di- 
gestive tract  of  farm  animals.  Since  animals  of  the  same  class 
and  in  good  health  are  fairly  uniform  in  the  amount  of  material 
they  extract  from  a  given  class  of  food,  it  is  practicable  to 
make  digestion  trials  to  determine  the  amount  of  the  various 
food  materials  digested  and  to  use  these  figures  as  a  basis  of  com- 
putation for  all  animals  of  the  same  class. 

Digestible  nutrients.  —  Digestible  nutrients  are  those  parts  of 
food  materials  that  are  digested  and  appropriated  to  the  ani- 
mal's use.  Our  knowledge  of  the  amount  of  the  food  materials 
that  are  digested  is  based  on  experimental  data,  and  while  not 
absolutely  accurate,  is  sufficiently  so  for  practical  purposes. 
The  method  of  determining  the  digestible  nutrients  is  as  fol- 
lows :  The  animal  is  fed  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  on  a 
certain  food  or  combination  of  foods,  so  that  the  digestive  or- 
gans contain  only  the  food  under  test.  Then  for  a  certain  length 
of  time  the  animal  is  fed  a  carefully  weighed  allowance  of  some 


THE  FEEDING    OF  ANIMALS  47 

food,  the  composition  of  which  has  been  previously  determined 
by  a  chemist.  Provision  is  then  made  for  collecting  all  excreta. 
By  making  an  analysis  of  this  waste  matter,  the  undigested 
protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  are  found.  This,  deducted  from 
the  total  in  the  food,  gives  the  digested  part.  The  amount  of 
each  constituent  digested  divided  by  the  total  in  the  food  gives 
the  percentage  digestible.  This  is  called  the  "  coefficient  of  digesti- 
bility." The  grains  are  more  highly  digestible  than  the  coarse 
fodders;  for  example,  in  corn  the  protein  is  76  per  cent  digestible, 
the  crude  fiber  58,  the  nitrogen-free  extract  93,  and  the  fat  86 
per  cent  digestible,  while  in  timothy  hay  the  protein  is  56  per 
cent,  the  crude  fiber  58,  the  nitrogen-free  extract  63,  and  the  fat 
57  per  cent  digestible. 

Among  the  various  food  materials  the  carbohydrates  as  a 
rule  are  the  most  digestible,  running  as  high  as  95  per  cent  in  case 
of  corn,  while  the  crude  fiber  is  the  least  digestible,  and  between 
these  lie  fat  and  protein.  In  general  the  fat  is  more  digestible 
than  the  protein.  As  a  rule,  the  digestible  coefficient  falls 
when  large  amounts  of  foods  are  used.  If  we  crowd  the  con- 
sumption of  food,  the  animal  does  not  digest  it  as  thoroughly  as 
it  would  if  fed  smaller  amounts.  On  the  other  hand,  we  cannot 
secure  a  greater  digestibility  by  limiting  the  consumption. 
Animals  under  a  starving  ration  do  not  digest  any  more  than 
when  fed  a  normal  amount. 

Having  the  composition  of  the  food  as  determined  by  the 
chemist,  and  the  digestible  coefficient  as  determined  with  the 
animal,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  calculate  the  amount  of  digestible 
nutrients  in  the  various  food-stuffs.  It  is  with  the  digestible 
nutrients,  and  not  the  total  food  materials,  that  the  feeder  is 
concerned  in  choosing  a  ration.  A  great  deal  of  work  has  been 
done  at  the  various  experiment  stations  to  determine  the  digesti- 
bility of  food-stuffs.  For  ready  reference  Table  II,  showing  the 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  a  large  number  of  foods,  is 
published  in  the  Appendix  of  this  manual. 


48  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

CONDITIONS    INFLUENCING    DIGESTION 

The  changes  that  the  food  undergoes  in  the  digestive  tract 
during  digestion  are  beyond  the  control  of  the  feeder.  They 
proceed  in  accordance  with  fixed  laws.  The  feeder,  however, 
can  manipulate  the  food  or  change  the  conditions  under  which 
it  is  fed  so  that  the  completeness  of  digestion  is  modified. 

Palatability.  —  In  the  case  of  most  foods,  anything  that  adds 
to  their  palatability  will  promote  digestion.  While  an  agreeable 
flavor  or  taste  adds  nothing  to  the  energy  of  a  food,  the  more  it  is 
relished  the  greater  will  be  the  flow  of  the  digestive  juices,  the 
more  thoroughly  the  food  will  be  acted  on  by  them,  and  the 
more  completely  the  nutrients  will  be  dissolved  and  digested. 

Palatability,  therefore,  is  an  important  factor  in  feeding,  as  it 
promotes  a  more  vigorous  action  on  the  part  of  the  digestive 
organs,  which  result  in  a  more  complete  digestion  of  the  food. 

Time  of  harvesting.  —  The  effect  on  digestibility  of  the  time 
of  harvesting  plants  is  great.  The  time  to  harvest  a  plant  so 
as  to  get  the  maximum  amount  of  digestible  material  will  depend 
much  on  the  part  of  the  plant  that  is  to  be  used  for  food.  In  the 
case  of  hay,  much  of  the  food  material  is  transferred  from  the 
stalk  to  the  seed  as  the  plant  ripens.  These  seeds  are  so  small 
and  hard  that  they  are  not  digested  by  the  animal;  hence  hay 
that  is  cut  when  ripe  is  not  so  digestible  as  that  cut  before  the 
seeds  ripen  and  while  the  food  materials  were  yet  in  the  growing 
parts.  Again,  the  riper  the  plants  the  more  crude  fiber  they 
contain,  and  this  we  have  already  seen  is  mostly  undigestible. 
In  the  case  of  corn,  it  is  the  seed  that  is  used  as  food,  and  in  this 
case  the  plant  should  not  be  harvested  till  the  food  materials 
have  passed  from  the  stalk  into  the  seed.  Therefore  hay  plants, 
or  those  plants  of  which  the  stems  and  leaves  are  used,  should  be 
cut  when  green,  and  grain  plants,  or  those  plants  of  which  the 
seeds  are  used,  should  be  cut  when  ripe. 

Grinding  the  food.  — Grinding  certain  kinds  of  foods  promotes 
digestion  by  increasing  the  surface  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 


THE  FEEDING   OF  ANIMALS  49 

digestive  juices.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  when  grain  is  fed 
whole,  many  entire  grains  pass  through  the  tract.  Grinding  also 
saves  the  animal  the  energy  of  crushing  the  grains.  Many 
experiments  have  been  conducted,  comparing  the  feeding  of 
ground  grain  with  whole  grain,  with  the  results  in  favor  of  grind- 
ing. The  profit  from  grinding  grain  hinges,  in  part  at  least, 
upon  the  relation  of  the  cost  of  grinding  to  the  loss  from  not 
grinding.  If  the  cost  of  grinding  amounts  to  one-tenth  the 
value  of  the  grain,  the  probability  of  profit  from  grinding  is 
small. 

Curing  food.  —  The  method  of  curing  food  may  result  in  a 
loss  of  a  part  of  the  digestible  nutrients.  The  mere  curing, 
drying,  or  preserving  of  food  will  not  alter  its  digestibility.  If, 
however,  hay  is  cured  under  adverse  conditions,  such  as  exposure 
to  rain  and  the  like,  when  leaching  occurs,  or  fermentation  sets 
in,  or  when  many  of  the  finer  parts  of  the  plants  are  lost,  then 
the  digestibility  is  very  much  lessened. 

Various  -processes,  such  as  wetting,  steaming,  cooking,  fer- 
menting, and  the  like,  are  used  with  the  several  foods  prepara- 
tory to  feeding,  with  the  view  of  rendering  them  more  acceptable 
to  the  animal.  When  increased  efficiency  occurs,  it  is  due  to 
more  complete  digestion  rather  than  to  added  nutritive  value. 
It  has  been  fairly  well  proved  that  cooking  renders  some  parts 
more  undigestible,  particularly  the  protein.  On  the  other  hand, 
cooking  certain  foods  changes  the  mechanical  condition  so  they 
are  more  readily  eaten.  The  advantage  of  cooking  is  greater 
for  swine  than  for  any  other  class  of  animals.  The  addition  of 
water,  in  the  form  of  wetting,  soaking,  or  even  steaming,  is  often 
advantageous  because  it  increases  the  palatability  and  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  restores  the  succulence  that  the  food  lost  in  drying. 
The  addition  of  salt  will  cause  an  animal  to  eat  food  that  it  would 
otherwise  reject.  The  presence  or  absence  of  agreeable  vege- 
table oils  is  a  matter  to  be  considered.  It  is  difficult  to  under- 
stand why  animals  will  readily  eat  clover  and  alfalfa  hay,  but 


50  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

reject  sweet  clover,  and  why  weeds,  which  often  impart  a  bad 
flavor  to  the  product,  are  sometimes  readily  eaten. 

MAINTENANCE  RATIONS  AND  PRODUCTIVE  RATIONS 

A  ration  may  be  defined  as  the  quantity  of  food  that  will 
be  consumed  by  an  animal  weighing  one  thousand  pounds  in 
twenty-four  hours.  In  forming  rations,  it  is  necessary  to  take 
into  account  the  purpose  for  which  the  animal  is  intended.  For 
a  given  purpose  an  animal  will  require  a  given  amount  and 
kind  of  food.  Thus  a  one-thousand-pound  cow  yielding 
twenty  pounds  of  milk  per  day  will  require  a  certain  kind  and 
a  certain  amount  of  food.  This  is  called  a  standard  ration.  For 
convenience  of  study,  rations  are  divided  into  two  general 
classes,  —  rations  for  maintenance  and  rations  for  production. 

Maintenance  rations.  —  A  maintenance  ration  is  one  that  sup- 
plies the  needs  of  a  resting  animal  without  producing  any 
kind  of  labor  and  with  no  loss  or  gain  of  body  substance.  We 
have  already  seen  that  a  certain  amount  of  the  food  consumed 
by  the  animal  goes  to  support  life,  maintain  body  temperature, 
repair  waste  tissue,  and  to  provide  muscular  activity  of  vital 
processes.  Since  the  demands  on  the  body  for  maintenance 
are  largely  for  the  production  of  muscular  energy  and  heat, 
nine-tenths  or  more  of  the  maintenance  ration  may  consist  of 
carbohydrates.  This  fact  has  much  significance  in  the  winter- 
ing of  idle  animals.  Strictly  speaking,  no  farm  animal  should  be 
fed  only  a  maintenance  ration.  Animals  receiving  maintenance 
rations  are  yielding  no  product.  All  farm  animals  should  be 
producing  something  at  all  times. 

Productive  rations.  —  Productive  rations  may  be  looked  upon 
as  made  up  of  two  parts:  that  which  is  needed  to  maintain  the 
animal,  and  that  which  may  be  applied  to  production  after  the 
bodily  needs  have  been  supplied.  It  is  the  food  consumed  in  ex- 
cess of  the  amount  required  for  maintenance  that  enables  the 
animal  to  produce.     The  question,  then,  is  as  to  the  quantity  of 


THE  FEEDING    OF  ANIMALS  51 

food  the  animal  will  consume  and  make  sufficient  returns  for  in 
production.  The  more  an  animal  consumes  in  excess  of  the 
amount  required  for  maintenance,  the  more  it  can  produce. 
While  it  is  true  in  a  sense  that  the  amount  of  production  is  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  food  consumed  in  excess  of  that 
required  for  maintenance,  it  is  only  within  rather  narrow  limits 
that  this  relation  holds  strictly  true.  The  individuality  of  the 
animal  plays  an  important  part.  All  farm  animals  will  eat  and 
digest  more  food  than  is  required  for  maintenance,  but  the 
amount  of  product  that  comes  from  this  excess  of  food  is  very 
variable,  and  in  many  cases  this  makes  the  difference  between  a 
profitable  and  an  unprofitable  animal  as  well  as  a  successful  and 
an  unsuccessful  feeder.  This  variation  among  individual  ani- 
mals is  so  great  that  standards  for  production  can  be  used  only 
as  mere  guides.  The  economical  and  profitable  feeding  of  farm 
animals  depends  much  on  the  feeder's  observations  of  the 
animals  directly  in  charge,  to  determine  their  capacity  for  the 
use  of  food. 

Feeding-standards  for  farm  animals.  —  A  feeding-standard  is  a 
rule  to  which  all  rations  should  conform  for  a  given  purpose. 
The  Germans  have  done  much  work  in  establishing  such  stand- 
ards, which  have  long  been  in  general  use  as  guides  in  computing 
rations  for  farm  animals.  There  is  now,  however,  a  prevailing 
impression  among  American  investigators  that  these  standards 
call  for  more  protein  than  is  needed  for  best  results.  Under 
conditions  as  they  exist  in  this  country,  a  reduction  of  the  protein 
seems  advisable,  although  just  how  much  it  is  impossible  to  say. 
A  reduction  of  10  per  cent  has  been  recommended  as  not  un- 
reasonable. 

BALANCED    RATION 

A  balanced  ration  is  one  that  contains  the  food  nutrients 
in  the  proper  proportion  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  animal  for  a 
given  purpose.  Skill  in  balancing  a  ration  depends  much  on 
one's  knowledge  of  the  composition  and  digestibility  of  the  more 


52  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

common  foods.  It  is  not  now  considered  necessary  to  balance 
rations  with  the  mathematical  exactness  that  was  formerly  in 
vogue.  Yet  it  must  conform  in  a  general  way  to  the  standard. 
A  great  number  of  experiments  demonstrate  conclusively  the 
practicability  of  feeding  the  balanced  ration.  Balancing  ra- 
tions is,  however,  a  tedious  undertaking,  as  there  is  no  mathe- 
matical formula,  and  one  must  add  to  or  take  from  his  trial 
ration  until  the  desired  standard  is  obtained. 

Nutritive-ratio.  —  The  nutritive-ratio  is  the  proportion  between 
the  digestible  protein  in  a  given  food  and  the  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats.  It  is  ascertained  in  the  following  manner : 
Multiply  the  digestible  fat  by  2$,  add  the  product  to  the 
digestible  carbohydrates,  and  divide  their  sum  by  the  digestible 
protein. 

The  method  of  calculating  the  nutritive-ratio  of  corn,  the  diges- 
tible nutrients  of  which  are  protein  7.9,  carbohydrates  66.7,  and 
fat  4.3,  is  as  follows  :  — 


Fat 

He 

at  Equivalent 

4.3 

X 

C; 

lRBOHYDRATES 

9.67 

9.67 

+ 

66.7 

Protein 

= 

76.37 

76.37 

-s- 

7.9 

= 

9.6 

Nutritive-ratio  1 

:9.6 

This  gives  a  nutritive-ratio  of  1  :  9.6  for  corn,  and  it  means  that 
for  each  pound  of  digestible  protein  in  the  corn  there  are  9.6 
pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrate  and  fat  equivalent.  A 
nutritive-ratio  may  be  distinguished  as  " narrow"  or  "wide." 
A  narrow  ration  is  one  in  which  the  proportion  of  protein  is 
quite  large,  say  1  :  4.5,  whereas  a  wide  ration  is  one  where  the 
carbohydrates  are  large,  say  1 :  8  or  1 :  10.  These  terms  do  not 
represent  exact  values,  but  are  used  in  a  general  way. 

To  illustrate  the  method  of  calculating  a  ration  for  a  given 


THE  FEEDING    OF  ANIMALS 


53 


purpose,  we  will  assume  the  case  of  a  horse  weighing  approxi- 
mately 1000  pounds  and  at  moderate  work.  From  the  discus- 
sion on  food  requirements  for  the  horse,  p.  57,  we  learn  that  the 
standard  ration  is  as  follows  :  — 


Dry-Matter 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Ratio 

24.0 

2.0 

11.0 

0.6 

1:6.2 

Let  us  choose  from  Table  II  of  the  Appendix  such  foods  as  will 
supply  the  conditions.  For  a  trial  ration,  we  will  take  14  pounds 
of  timothy  hay,  10  pounds  of  oats,  and  2  pounds  of  bran.  The 
digestible  nutrients  in  these  are  calculated  as  follows :  — 

Calculation  of  dry-matter  and  digestible  nutriments   in  trial  ration  for 

a  horse  at  medium  work 


In  100 
Pounds 

86.8 

2.8 
43.4 

1.4 


Timothy  Hay 

100  X  14  = 
100  X  14  = 
100  X  14  = 
100  X  14  = 


In  14 
Pounds 

12.152 
0.392 
6.076 
0.196 


Oats 


In  100 
Pounds 

89.0 
9.2 

47.3 
4.2 


In  10 
Pounds 


100  X  10  =  8.900 
100  X  10  -  0.920 
100  X  10  =  4.730 
100  X  10  =  0.420 


In  like  manner,  calculate  the  digestible  nutrients  in  two 
pounds  of  bran  and  arrange  the  result  in  tabular  form  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

First  trial  ration  for  1000-pound  horse  at  moderate  work 


Food 

Dry 
Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Nutritive- 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Ratio 

14  lb.  timothy 
10  lb.  oats     . 
2  lb.  bran      . 

12.125 

8.900 
1.762 

0.392 
0.920 
0.244 

6.076 
4.730 
0.784 

0.196 
0.420 
0.054 

First  trial  ra- 
tion 
Standard 

22.787 
24.000 

1.556 
2.000 

11.590 
11.000 

0.670 
0.600 

1:8.3 

1 :  6.2 

54 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


This  trial  ration  falls  considerably  below  the  standard  in  dry- 
matter  and  is  too  wide.  We  must  therefore  add  a  food  rich  in 
protein.     We  will  try  one  pound  of  linseed  meal,  old  process :  — 


Second  trial  ration  for  1000-pound  horse  at  moderate  work 


Food 

Dry- 
Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Nutritive- 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Ratio 

Ration        as 

above   . 
1   lb.   linseed 

22.787 
0.908 

1.556 
0.292 

11.590 
0.327 

0.670 
0.070 

Second    trial 

ration  . 
Standard 

23.695 
24.000 

1.848 
2.000 

11.917 
11.000 

0.740 
0.600 

1:7.0 
1:6.2 

The  second  trial  ration  is  still  slightly  too  low  in  dry-matter 
and  protein,  and  somewhat  too  wide  in  the  ratio.  From  these 
trial  rations  we  learn  the  method  of  calculating  ratios.  The 
standard  only  serves  as  a  general  guide  from  which  to  estimate ; 
then  one  must  adapt  the  ration  to  suit  his  conditions.  It  often 
happens,  as  in  our  trial  ration  for  the  horse,  that  one  will  have  an 
excess  of  certain  nutrients  and  it  will  be  of  advantage  to  feed  it 
even  though  it  is  not  quite  so  well  balanced  because  of  the  ex- 
pense of  making  the  change;  in  the  case  above  one  would  have 
to  dispose  of  food  containing  much  carbohydrates  and  procure 
one  rich  in  protein. 

In  cases,  however,  where  there  is  a  great  departure  from 
the  standard,  it  would  pay  to  make  the  change,  as  has  been 
proved  by  many  experiments  at  the  various  experiment  stations 
and  by  the  experience  of  our  successful  stockmen. 

Other  methods  of  computing  rations.  —  There  are  two  other 
methods  of  computing  rations  for  farm  animals ;  one  is  some- 
what simpler  than  the  above  and  the  other  much  more  difficult. 
In  the  former  the  ration  is  computed  on  the  total  amounts  of 


THE  FEEDING    OF  ANIMALS 


55 


nutrients.  A  1000-pound  cow  yielding  22  pounds  of  milk  re- 
quires 29  pounds  of  dry-matter,  of  which  at  least  16  pounds 
should  be  digestible  and  2  to  2\ 
pounds  should  be  digestible  pro- 
tein. The  ration  is  calculated 
simply  on  the  digestible  matter 
and  the  protein.  The  other 
method  of  computing  rations 
for  farm  animals  is  by  the  use 
of  energy  values  of  the  food. 
In  this  method  one  must  know 
the  energy  values  of  the  vari- 
ous constituents;  also  amount 
of  energy  required  to  produce  a 
unit  of    whatever    is    wanted. 

In  other  words,  it  is  essential  to  know  the  energy  required  to 
produce  one  pound  of  beef,  pork,  mutton,  or  milk.  Knowing 
the  energy. of  the  food  and  the  energy  required  for  produc- 
tion, thejflgHi^s  calculated  accordingly. 

^'^^SBBppHBb-  —  The  nutritive-ratio  may  vary  from 
the  standard  without  serious  results.  Milk  cows  have  produced 
good  results  on  rations  with  a  nutritive-ratio  as  wide  as  1  :  8,  and 
horses  have  fared  well  on  rations  with  a  wider  nutritive-ratio. 
Much  depends  on  the  individuality  of  the  animal,  the  conditions, 
and  the  individuality  of  the  feeder.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
no  rules  can  be  given  that  will  apply  in  all  cases,  and  that  our 
feeding-standards  are  guides  and  not  laws. 


Fig.    28.  —  Wrydelands       "Star- 
light," Champion  Shire  Mare. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE   FEEDING   OF   HORSES 

Feeding  the  horse  presents  a  problem  of  as  wide  interest  as 
any  in  connection  with  farm  animals.  Practically  all  farmers, 
whatever  branch  of  farming  they  may  be  engaged  in,  have  oc- 
casion to  feed  horses.  In  addition  to  farmers,  commercial  firms 
of  various  kinds  keep  horses  in  large  numbers,  business  men  and 
sportsmen  keep  many  horses  for  pleasure,  all  of  whom  have  a 
deep  interest  in  methods  of  feeding  as  well  as  the  proper  food. 
The  farmer,  the  business  man,  and  the  sportsman  each  derive 
much  pleasure  in  having  their  horses  presentable  at  all  times. 
The  farmer's  relation  to  his  horse  may  not  be  the  same  as  that  of 
the  sportsman,  but  his  interest  is  as  great  and  his  care  as  pains- 
taking. 

FOOD   REQUIREMENTS   FOR   WORK 

The  work  horse  may  be  compared  to  a  steam  engine  in  which 
such  foods  as  grain  and  hay  serve  as  fuel,  but  it  differs  from 
the  engine  because  fire  and  steam  are  not  used  tooonvert  the  fuel 
into  work  or  energy.  In  the  horse  the  food  is  converted  into 
energy  in  a  different  way. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  horse  makes  better  use  of  the 
energy  in  the  food  than  does  the  steam  engine  of  the  energy  in 
the  fuel.  It  appears  that  about  one-third  of  the  total  food 
energy  can  be  converted  into  useful  work  with  the  horse,  while 
the  steam  engine  may  recover  as  much  as  one-tenth  of  the 
energy  contained  in  the  fuel. 

Many  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine  the  exact  re- 
lation between  the  amount  of  muscular  work  performed  and  the 

56 


THE  FEEDING    OF  HORSES 


57 


amount  of  nutrients  required  per  day.     And  as  a  result  of  such 
work  the  following  standards  have  been  suggested :  — 

Wolff-Lehman  standard  showing  the  amount  of  food  required  per  1000- 
pounds  live  weight  for  horses  at  light,  medium,  and  heavy  work 


Condition  of 

Dry- 
Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Nutritive- 

Animal 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Ratio 

Light  work  .     . 
Medium  work    . 
Heavy  work .     . 

20 

24 
26 

1.5 
2.0 
2.5 

9.5 
11.0 
13.3 

0.4 

0.6 
0.8 

1:7.0 
1:6.2 
1:6.0 

These  standards  were  arranged  to  meet  the  need  of  the  average 
horse  under  normal  conditions.  They  are  to  serve  as  guides,  to 
be  modified  to  meet  conditions,  and  not  as  laws,  fixed  and 
absolute. 

Regularity  in  feeding.  —  The  importance  of  regularity  in  every- 
thing that  pertains  to  the  management  of  the  horse  cannot 
easily  be  overestimated.  This  applies- particularly  to  feeding. 
Whatever  feeding-stuffs  are  employed  in  the  ration,  the  horse 
should  be  fed  regularly  and  uniformly  at  all  times.  The  horse 
anticipates  the  feeding  hour,  and  becomes  nervous  if  it  is  delayed. 
He  neighs  and  coaxes  for  his  food  with  great  regularity.  The 
horse's  digestive  system  and  his  vital  activities  become  accus- 
tomed to  a  certain  order,  which  should  be  followed.  To  change 
the  order  for  even  a  single  meal  produces  more  or  less  digestive 
disturbance.  The  horse's  digestive  system  is  not  so  large  pro- 
portionately as  that  of  a  cow  or  sheep ;  he  has  no  rumen,  no  place 
to  store  his  food  to  be  masticated  at  will ;  hence,  when  at  work 
the  horse  must  be  fed  regularly  and  often.  Undue  fasting  is 
followed  by  taking  an  excessive  supply  of  food,  which  in  turn 
calls  for  excessive  drinking  with  consequent  digestive  difficulties. 

Order  of  supplying  food.  —  Because  of  the  small  size  of  the 
horse's  stomach,  the  order  of  supplying  grain,  hay,  and  water 


58 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


assumes  much  importance,  Investigators  have  shown  that  the 
stomach  of  the  horse  must  fill  and  empty  itself  two  or  three  times 
for  each  meal  given.     It  appears  that  during  the  fore  part  of  the 


Fig.  29.  —  Belgian  Stallion  "Robuste    de   Thiensies. 
Crouch  &  Son,  Lafayette,  Ind. 


Imported    by   J. 


The  Belgian  draft  horse  is  a  native  of  Belgium.  This  breed  varies  widely  in 
weight  and  height,  stallions  from  Flanders  weighing  2000  pounds,  those  from 
Ardennais  weighing  about  1200  pounds,  with  the  height  varying  accordingly. 
In  color  chestnuts  are  the  most  popular,  although  bays,  browns,  and  roans  are 
numerous.  The  Belgians  lack  the  heavy  hair  on  the  limbs  possessed  by  the 
Shires  and  Clydes. 


meal  the  material  is  pushed  into  the  intestines  almost  as  soon  as 
it  enters  the  stomach  by  the  food  which  follows,  while  toward 
the  end  of  the  meal  passage  is  slow  and  the  digestion  in  the 
stomach  more  perfect.     This  being  true,  it  would  seem  that  the 


THE  FEEDING    OF  HORSES  59 

more  nutritious  foods  should  be  fed  toward  the  end  of  the  meal, 
especially  since  some  of  the  very  important  nutrients  are  largely 
digested  in  the  stomach  and  at  the  entrance  of  the  small  intes- 
tines. 

Watering  the  horse.  —  Many  feeders  think  that  the  horse 
should  be  watered  before  feeding,  while  others  are  equally  certain 
that  feeding  should  precede  watering.  Each  of  these  methods 
is  probably  equally  good  for  the  horse,  and  the  one  employed 
will  be  determined  by  circumstances.  Certain  conditions  may 
make  it  necessary  to  adopt  one,  other  conditions  the  other.  For 
example,  after  severe  loss  of  water,  such  as  occurs  in  consequence 
of  long-continued,  severe  exertion,  the  animal  may  perhaps  be  al- 
lowed to  drink  before  he  is  fed,  otherwise  he  will  not  feed  well. 
On  the  other  hand  if  permitted  to  drink  to  excess,  this  method 
of  watering  affects  the  appetite,  and  the  horse  will  not  consume 
so  much  food  as  he  otherwise  would.  Again,  it  has  been  very 
clearly  demonstrated  that  if  a  horse  is  fed  his  grain  first  and  then 
watered,  much  of  the  food  is  carried  by  the  water  into  the  in- 
testines. Since  the  grain  of  the  ration  is  rich  in  digestible  nu- 
trients, it  should  stay  in  the  stomach  as  long  as  possible,  since  the 
digestion  of  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  nutrients  is  more 
complete  there.  From  this  it  would  seem  that  the  horse  should 
be  given  water  first  of  all,  and  that  should  be  followed  by  hay, 
the  grain  being  withheld  until  at  least  a  part  of  the  hay  has  been 
consumed.  There  are,  however,  very  serious  objections  to  this 
practice,  as  the  horse  is  unsatisfied,  is  anxious,  and  very  nervous 
till  fed  his  grain,  and  should  not  be  compelled  to  wait  for  the 
grain.  A  middle  ground  should  be  taken  by  watering  first,  feed- 
ing the  grain  sprinkled  with  a  small  allowance  of  moistened, 
chopped  hay,  if  possible,  and  watering  again  after  the  ration  has 
been  consumed.  If  this  practice  is  followed,  it  will  satisfy  the 
desires  of  the  horse  by  supplying  the  most  palatable  part  of  his 
food  early,  and  yet  insure  the  retention  of  the  grain  in  the  stom- 
ach for  a  considerable  time. 


60  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Salt  in  limited  quantities  should  be  kept  before  the  horse  at  all 
times.  While  little  is  known  from  investigations  on  this  subject, 
it  is  evident  from  the  extreme  fondness  of  the  horse  for  salt  that 
it  should  be  regularly  supplied  him.  It  is  best  not  to  place  too 
much  before  him  at  a  time  as  some  horses  will  eat  it  to  excess. 

The  successful  horseman  will  study  each  individual  and  modify 
the  ration  according  to  the  varied  needs  ;  one  horse  should  have 
a  little  more  than  the  regular  allowance,  and  the  next  possibly  a 
little  less,  because  some  horses  are  more  difficult  to  keep  in  con- 
dition than  others  doing  the  same  work  and  under  similar  con- 
ditions. 

In  handling  horses  we  should  remember  that  they  are  very 
sensitive  animals  and  that  we  cannot  be  too  quiet  in  our  treat- 
ment of  them.  Striking  them  or  shouting  commands  at  them 
is  an  inconsiderate  practice ;  it  causes  the  animals  to  lose  con- 
fidence in  their  master,  thereby  rendering  them  less  teachable, 
and  destroys  nervous  energy,  making  them  less  economical  pro- 
ducers than  if  they  were  protected  at  all  times  from  these  ner- 
vous shocks. 

FEEDING   THE    WORK   HORSE 

The  work  horse  has  a  very  hearty  appetite,  a  vigorous 
digestion,  and  responds  more  readily,  than  any  other  animal, 
to  intelligent  care.  He  should  be  fed  liberally  and  frequently,  the 
quantity  given  being  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  animal  as  well 
as  the  amount  and  kind  of  work  he  is  required  to  do.  In  gen- 
eral, the  horse  should  be  supplied  with  something  over  two 
pounds  of  provender  daily  for  each  hundred  pounds  of  weight. 
Of  this  about  two-thirds,  the  exact  quantity  depending  on  the 
severity  of  the  labor  performed,  should  be  grain  in  some  form. 
If  the  work  is  exceedingly  heavy,  the  grain  in  the  ration  should 
be  increased  and  the  hay  diminished;  whereas,  if  the  work  is 
light,  the  grain  should  be  diminished  and  the  hay  increased. 
The  morning  meal  should  be  comparatively  light,  consisting 
mostly  of  grain.     It  should  not  possess  much  bulk.     In  many  of 


THE  FEEDING   OF  HORSES  61 

the  larger  stables  in  the  city  the  mid-day  meal  is  omitted.  But 
most  horsemen  hold  that  some  grain  should  be  given  at  noon, 
which  seems  reasonable  from 
our  knowledge  of  the  horse's 
stomach.  In  any  case,  the  mid- 
day ration  should  not  be.  large. 

The  heavy  feeding  should  come 
at  night,  after  the  day's  work  is 
over  and  when  the  animal  has 
ample  time  to  masticate  and  di- 
gest his  food.  A  very  good 
practice  is  as  follows :    For  the 

,.  r       i  ,         ,,      Fig.  30.  —  Imported  Belgian  Stal- 

mornmg  ration,  feed  one-fourth  LION.    Three  years  old. 

of  the  daily  allowance  at   least 

one  hour  before  going  to  work.  It  should  be  in  condition  to  be 
easily  and  rapidly  consumed,  so  as  to  be  well  out  of  the  way  when 
the  animal  is  led  from  the  stable.  After  being  watered,  he  is 
ready  for  the  morning's  task.  If  the  work  is  exhaustive  and 
exacting,  he  should  be  fed  after  five  hours  of  labor.  When  he 
comes  to  the  stable  at  mid-day,  he  should  have  a  drink  of  fresh, 
cool  water,  taking  care  that  he  does  not  drink  too  rapidly  or 
gorge  himself  if  very  warm.  At  this  time  give  him  another 
quarter  of  his  daily  allowance.  No  greater  service  can  be  ren- 
dered the  horse  at  this  time  than  to  remove  the  harness  so  that 
he  can  eat  his  meal  in  quiet  and  comfort  and  gain  a  few  minutes 
of  much-needed  rest.  If  possible,  he  should  have  one  hour  to  con- 
sume his  meal.  He  should  be  watered  again  before  going  to 
work.  He  is  now  ready  for  the  second  half  of  his  day's  labor. 
When  the  horse  comes  to  the  stable  in  the  evening,  tired  and 
warm,  he  should,  first  of  all,  be  allowed  a  fresh,  cool  drink,  care 
being  taken  as  before  that  he  does  not  drink  too  rapidly.  He  is 
now  ready  for  the  remainder  of  his  day's  allowance.  Unharness 
at  once,  and  when  the  sweat  has  dried,  give  him  a  thorough 
brushing.     If  for  some  reason  the  horse  is  forced  to  stand  idle 


62 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


in  the  stable  for  a  few  days,  the  ration  should  be  decreased. 
Otherwise  he  will  become  stocky  and  his  legs  become  swollen  and 
stiff. 

During  cold  weather  a  more  carbonaceous  ration  may  be  used. 
When  more  food  goes  to  furnish  heat  for  the  body,  it  is  reason- 
able that  a  horse  needs  a  large  proportion  of  heat-making  food. 
Equal  parts  of  corn  and  oats  by  weight  would  be  more  satis- 
factory and  ordinarily  much  cheaper  than  a  larger  proportion  of 
oats. 


Fig.  31.  —  A  Good  Farm  Team  of  Grade  Belgians.     Weight  3500  Pounds. 


In  providing  a  ration,  whether  for  summer  or  for  winter  use, 
due  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  cost.  Roughage  is 
ordinarily  much  cheaper  than  grain,  but  a  horse  at  work  is  un- 
able economically  to  dispose  of  a  large  proportion  of  bulky  food. 
If  considerable  time  and  energy  must  be  expended  in  masticating 
rough  feed,  the  usefulness  of  the  horse  for  work  is  lessened 
thereby.  The  more  concentrated  the  food,  within  proper  limits, 
the  less  percentage  of  energy  will  be  needed  to  make  it  available. 
The  proportion  of  grain  to  roughage  depends  on  the  amount 
and  kind  of  work  to  be  performed.     A  horse  at  hard  work  should 


THE  FEEDING   OF  HOUSES 


63 


never  be  expected  to  consume  more  roughage  than  grain  by 
weight. 

FEEDING    THE    DRIVING    HORSE 

The  driving  or  carriage  horse  is  more  difficult  to  keep  in  con- 
dition than  the  work  horse.  The  periods  of  enforced  idleness, 
occasioned  by  lack  of  business  engagements  of  his  master  or  by 
inclement  weather,  are  often  followed  by  long  drives  and  hours 


Fig.  32. — A  Driving  Team  of  Spirit  and  Good  Form. 


of  over-exertion.  This  irregular  work  weakens  the  constitution 
of  the  driving  horse,  which  generally  has  but  a  brief  career. 
When  daily  driving  cannot  be  practiced,  underfeeding  is  con- 
sidered the  safe  course. 

In  feeding  this  class  of  horses,  the  same  general  plan  that  has 
been  suggested  for  the  work  horse  should  be  followed.     When 


64  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  horse  is  not  taken  from  the  stable  during  the  day,  the  con- 
centrates, or  grain  part  of  the  ration,  should  at  once  be  reduced 
by  one-third  and  the  normal  allowance  should  not  again  be  given 
until  the  work  is  resumed.  Driving  horses  are  usually  overfed, 
because  of  the  desire  of  the  owner  to  keep  them  in  the  pink  of 
condition.  This  overfeeding  and  irregular  exercise  are  the  cause 
of  most  of  the  ills  of  the  driving  horse.  Oats  leads  easily  among 
the  grains.  When  it  is  fed,  the  horse  exhibits  mettle  as  from  no 
other  food.  If  at  any  time  the  animal  should  seem  constipated, 
a  bran  mash  should  be  given.  Timothy  is  the  preferred  hay. 
While  a  certain  amount  of  roughage  must  be  fed  to  give  bulk  or 
volume  to  the  ration  in  order  that  the  digestive  functions  may 
be  properly  maintained,  yet  we  must  remember  that  a  large  ab- 
domen cannot  be  tolerated  in  a  driving  horse.  Another  factor 
that  the  feeder  of  this  class  of  horses  must  ever  be  on  his  guard 
against  is  the  feeding  of  laxative  foods,  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay  or  bran,  in  too  large  quantities,  for  when  the  horses  are  put 
on  the  road  and  warmed  up,  they  will  prove  very  draining  on  the 
system  as  well  as  disagreeable  to  the  driver.  Style  and  action 
are  prerequisites,  while  economy  in  feeding  and  sometimes  the 
health  of  the  animal  are  held  to  be  but  secondary.  Profes- 
sional drivers  may  not  be  the  safest  persons  to  advise  on 
feeding. 

WINTERING   THE    IDLE    HORSE 

On  the  average  farm  most  of  the  work  comes  during  the  grow- 
ing season.  It  is  more  economical,  and  perhaps  advisable,  that 
the  idle  horse  be  turned  into  a  lot,  if  it  is  well  protected,  to  be 
roughed  through  the  winter  rather  than  confined  too  closely  in 
the  barn.  As  winter  comes  on  the  horse  will  grow  a  heavy  coat 
of  hair,  which  will  afford  excellent  protection.  Such  a  horse 
may  be  maintained  wholly  or  nearly  so  upon  hay,  oat  straw,  or 
corn  fodder,  as  it  has  time  to  masticate  food,  and  not  being 
taxed  by  labor,  it  is  able  to  subsist  on  food  containing  a  large 


THE  FEEDING    OF  HORSES  65 

percentage  of  crude  fiber.  It  is  better  to  have  the  digestive  tract 
of  the  idle  horse  well  distended  with  coarse  material  rather  than 
contracted,  as  would  be  the  case  if  grains  possessing  only  the 
requisite  nutrients  were  supplied.  If  the  protected  area  is  kept 
dry  and  well  bedded,  the  horse  can  be  comfortably  wintered  in 
this  way  at  much  less  expense  than  by  stabling.  Some  grain 
should,  however,  be  fed  at  shedding-time,  even  if  the  horses  are 
idle.  Light  grain  feeding,  together  with  some  work,  should 
begin  six  weeks  before  the  spring  work  starts,  to  put  the  horse  in 
condition. 

FEEDING    THE    BROOD    MARE 

Many  farmers  are  so  situated  that  they  may  raise  a  team  of 
colts  each  year  without  seriously  interfering  with  farm  operations. 
This  is  a  good  practice,  as  there  is  a  demand  for  good  horses  for 
both  city  and  farm  use.  A  team  of  mares  in  foal  can  be  worked 
until  the  day  of  foaling  if  the  work  is  not  too  severe  and  the 
driver  is  careful.  In  fact,  moderate  exercise  is  necessary  for  the 
mare  in  foal.  Idleness  is  the  bane  of  horse-rearing,  and  should  be 
avoided  whenever  possible.  The  Arabs  have  a  saying,  "Rest 
and  fat  are  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  horse."  Mares  in  foal 
should  be  fed  much  as  suggested  for  work  horses  with  perhaps 
the  addition  of  more  protein  foods,  as  bran  and  oil  meal.  The 
ration  should  be  such  as  will  supply  the  demands  for  energy  and 
in  addition  allow  abundant  nourishment  for  the  development  of 
the  foal  both  before  and  for  a  time  after  birth.  A  very  good  ra- 
tion for  the  pregnant  mare  is  as  follows :  Four  parts  ground 
oats,  four  parts  wheat  bran  or  its  equivalent,  and  one  part  lin- 
seed meal,  with  bright  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  for  roughage. 

Pregnant  animals  have  a  tendency  to  fatten  as  pregnancy  ad- 
vances. This  must  be  guarded  against  as  the  mare  may, 
become  so  fat  as  to  interfere  with  the  development  of  the  foal, 
cause  abortion  or  other  troubles  at  parturition,  such  as  milk- 
fever  and  the  like.     The  ration  of  the  mare  should  be  reduced 


66 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


just  before  and  for  a  short  time  after  foaling.     If  she  is  consti- 
pative,  bran  mash  may  be  given  occasionally.     By  the  use  of 

proper  foods  the  bowels 
should  be  kept  in  good 
condition  and  they 
should  be  a  little  loose, 
rather  than  otherwise, 
at  the  time  of  parturi- 
tion. While  the  mare 
may  be  worked  up  to 
the  time  of  foaling,  she 
should  be  given  a  few 
days  rest  after  foaling 
to  enable  her  to  gain  her 
strength  and  give  the 
foal  the  proper  start. 
For  the  first  few  days  of 
recuperation  a  hot  bran 
mash  fed  once  a  day  has 
both  a  cooling  and  a 
laxative  effect  on  the 
mare,  and  it  is  very 
beneficial.  If  all  has 
gone  well  with  the  mare  and  foal,  the  mare  may  be  put  to 
work  at  the  end  of  one  week  from  the  time  of  parturition. 
Some  dams,  especially  those  with  their  first  foals,  fail  to  supply 
the  proper  amount  of  milk,  and  the  young  foals  do  not  thrive. 
In  this  case  the  mare  should  be  provided  with  food  which 
stimulates  the  milk  flow.  Corn  and  timothy  hay  fed  alone 
are  not  good  milk-producing  foods.  The  ration  suggested  for 
the  pregnant  mare  is  better,  and  it  could  be  much  improved  if 
a  little  succulent  food  were  fed  with  it,  such  as  carrots. 

When  in  season,  good  pasture  grass  is  best.    If  there  is  an  over- 
supply  of  milk,  or  if  the  milk  is  too  rich,  the  food  may  be  restricted 


Fig.  33.  —  Black  Percheron  Gelding,  Four 
Years  Old.  Weight  2460  Pounds.  Ready 
for  market.     Fed  by  H.  D.  Snyder  &  Sons. 


THE  FEEDING    OF  HORSES 


67 


and  the  mare  milked,  in  part,  by  hand;  otherwise  the  foal  will  not 
do  well. 

FEEDING    MULES 

Mules  should  be  fed  similarly  to  horses.     The  statement  is  of- 
ten made  that  a  mule  requires  less  food  than  a  horse  to  do  a  given 


Fig.  34.  —  A  Pair  of  Well-bred   Mules.     Photograph  from  Nation  a I  Stock- 
man and  Farmer. 


amount  of  work.     Such  is  not  the  case.     True,  a  mule  is  less 
likely  to  overfeed  and  gorge  himself  than  a  horse,  and  will  make 


68  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

use  of  coarse  foods  that  the  horse  will  not  eat  unless  forced  to  do  so 
by  neglect.  Mules  are  often  preferred  by  large  business  concerns, 
not  that  they  consume  less  food  for  a  given  amount  of  work  than 
a  horse,  but  that  their  feeding  can  be  trusted  to  less  skillful  hands 
without  seriously  endangering  the  mule's  health.  If  an  extra 
large  mess  is  given  him,  he  eats  what  he  wishes  and  leaves  the 
rest;  not  so  with  the  tired  horse,  as  he  will  eat  all  the  grain  that  is 
given  him  up  to  the  point  of  seriously  endangering  his  health. 
For  best  results  the  ration  of  the  mule  should  be  comprised  of" 
easily  digested  and  nutritious  feeds  which  should  be  varied  from 
time  to  time  as  no  animal  loves  a  variety  better  than  the  mule. 
The  ration  should  be  suitable  to  the  kind  of  work.  For  light 
work  a  small  quantity  of  grain  and  a  relatively  large  quantity  of 
hay  is  best,  but  when  the  work  is  severe  and  exacting,  the  quantity 
of  grain  should  be  increased  and  the  hay  decreased.  As  among 
all  other  farm  animals  there  is  much  difference  in  individuals, 
and  the  successful  feeder  will  make  a  careful  study  of  each  and 
modify  the  ration  accordingly,  as  some  should  have  a  little 
more  than  the  regular  allowance,  others  less.  In  all  essential 
features  the  mule  is  very  similar  to  the  horse,  and  what  we  sug- 
gested for  horses  applies  with  equal  force  to  mules. 

SAMPLE    RATIONS    FOR   THE    HORSE 

The  following  rations  are  collected  from  various  sources  and 
furnish  a  guide  in  determining  the  kind  and  amount  of  feed  that 
should  be  allowed  the  horse  under  various  conditions  :  — 


THE  FEEDING    OF  HORSES 


69 


Ration* 

Weight 
of 

Animal  and  Work 

Horse 

Grain 

Roughage 

Colt,  weaning  time 

2  lb.  oa-ts 

Hay  ad  lib. 

Colt,  one  year  old  . 

4  lb.  oats 

Hay  ad  lib. 

Colt,  two  years  old 

6  lb.  oats 

Hay  ad  lib. 

Colt,  two  years  old 

in  training 

8  lb.  oats 

Hay  allowance  lim- 
ited 

Colt,  three  years  old 

Hay   allowance   lim 

in  training 

8-10  lb.  oats 

ited 

Race  horse    . 

15  lb.  oats 

6-8  lb.  hay 

Hunter,  small    . 

12  lb.  oats 

12  lb.  hay 

Hunter,  large     . 

16  lb.  oats 

10  lb.  hay 

Cavalry  horses  . 

1050 

12  lb.  oats 

14  lb.  hay 

Artillery  horses . 

1125 

12  lb.  oats 

14  lb.  hay 

Heavy  draft 

2000 

12  lb.  oats 
3  lb.  corn 
6  lb.  beans 

15  lb.  clover  hay 

Farm  work 

Farm  teams,  east   . 

1220 

8  lb.  oats 
6  lb.  corn 
2  lb.  bran 

10  lb.  hay 

Farm  teams,  east  . 

1230 

8  lb.  corn 
7  lb.  bran 

10  lb.  hay 

Farm  teams,  east   . 

1170 

8  lb.  oats 
6  lb.  corn 
2  lb.  bran 

10  lb.  hay 

Farm  teams,  east   . 

1175 

7  lb.  bran 
7  lb.  corn 

12  lb.  corn-stover 

Farm  teams,  east  . 

1000 

27  lb.  bran 
4f  lb.  corn 
87  lb.  dried  Brewers' 
grains 

6  lb.  hay 

Farm  teams,  east  . 

1180 

6.55  lb.  corn 
5.45      lb.     linseed 
meal 

8  lb.  hay 

Farm  teams,  west  . 

1235 

11.5  lb.  oats 

14.7  lb.  alfalfa  hay 

Farm  teams,  west  . 

1870 

5  lb.  bran 
5  lb.  shorts 

25  lb.  alfalfa  bay 

Farm  teams,  west  . 

1385 

19.7  lb.  alfalfa  hay 

Farm  teams,  west  . 

1420 

32.6  lb.  alfalfa  hay 

CHAPTER  IV 
THE  BREEDING   OF   ANIMALS,   IN   GENERAL 

The  breeding  of  farm  animals  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting 
problem  connected  with  their  propagation  and  care.  While 
farm  animals  have  been  undergoing  improvement  from  the  time 
that  we  have  authentic  history,  it  is  only  within  the  last  one 
hundred  years  or  so  that  very  great  progress  has  been  made  in 
their  improvement.  During  this  period  practically  all  of  our 
breeds,  as  we  now  know  them,  have  been  formed,  and  great  dif- 
ferentiation has  taken  place  in  the  production  of  the  various 
classes.  Only  recently  have  we  paid  much  attention  to  the 
milk-producing  capacity  of  our  cattle,  although  cattle  have 
been  kept  for  milk  since  the  beginning  of  history ;  only  recently 
have  we  selected  horses  for  strength,  though  they  have  been  used 
in  war  and  sport  for  four  thousand  years  ;  and  the  same  is  true 
of  all  the  specialized  breeds.  Formerly,  breeders  had  no  system 
of  selection.  Their  standards  constantly  changed,  so  that  no 
real  progress  in  the  development  of  the  most  valuable  qualities 
could  be  made. 

Shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Robert 
Bakewell  of  Dishley  Grange,  Leicestershire,  England,  originated 
a  system  which  he  practiced  in  the  improvement  of  Leicester 
sheep,  Long-horn  cattle,  and  the  English  cart-horse.  His 
method  was  taken  up  and  successfully  practiced  by  other  men ; 
and  we  now  have  as  the  result  of  their  labors  a  variety  of  im- 
proved breeds,  each  differing  from  the  others  in  the  particular 
characters  for  which  they  have  been  selected  and  that  adapt 

70 


THE  BREEDING   OF  ANIMALS,    IN   GENERAL  71 

them  to  special  conditions  and  purposes.  Thus  we  have  a  strain 
of  cattle  that,  having  been  selected  from  generation  to  generation 
for  their  milk  yield,  have  become  so  profuse  in  the  secreting  of 
milk  that  we  call  them  by  a  certain  breed  name.  The  object 
sought  being  milk  yield  and  through  several  generations  se- 
lected for  this  one  purpose,  the  ability  to  secrete  a  large  flow 
became  fixed  and  capable  of  transmission  to  the  offspring. 
This  increased  milk  flow  is  not  to  be  understood  as  a  new 
character,  as  all  cows  give  some  milk,  but  merely  an  increase  in 
the  ability  to  secrete  milk  in  large  quantities. 

Like  produces  like.  —  Everything  brings  forth  after  its  kind. 
In  order  that  the  offspring  be  a  high-producing  heifer,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  dam  and  sire  before  her  be  of  a  high-producing 
strain  of  cattle.  In  other  words,  the  offspring  will  bear  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  parents  in  all  important  essentials.  This 
Bakewell  recognized,  and  he  shocked  the  modest  people  of  his 
time  by  uniting  animals  that  possessed  the  characters  he  wished 
•to  propagate  without  regard  to  the  relationship  of  the  animals. 
If  a  cow  and  her  son  possessed  the  characters  he  wished  to  retain, 
he  united  them,  and  in  this  way  secured  an  offspring  possessing 
the  desirable  characters  to  a  greater  degree  than  either  parent. 
It  has  been  said  of  Bakewell  that  he  regarded  his  animals  as 
wax  out  of  which  in  time  he  could  mold  any  form  that  he  desired 
to  create.  All  farm  animals  have  been  molded  to  a  great  degree 
by  man.  It  is  now  thought  that  the  Percheron  draft  horse  and 
the  Shetland  pony  have  descended  from  the  same  original  type 
of  horse,  and  that  the  Shorthorn  and  the  Jersey  descended  from 
the  same  type  of  cow.  In  one  case  there  was  a  continuous  selec- 
tion, whether  natural  or  artificial,  for  a  large  animal  with  the  re- 
sult that  to-day  we  have  the  ponderous  draft  horse;  in  the  case  of 
the  pony  the  selection  was  for  the  smaller  animal  with  the  result 
that  we  have  a  diminutive  horse.  This  selection  has  been  going 
on  for  ages,  and  now  the  two  types  are  fixed  under  their  present 
conditions.     Bear  in  mind,  however,  that  a  reversal  of  the  con- 


72  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

ditions  might  result  in  a  reversal  of  the  type.  In  other  words, 
if  one  wished  to  enlarge  the  Shetland  ponies  all  he  need  do  is  to 
feed  them  abundance  of  nutritious  feed  and  unite  the  largest  to 
the  largest  in  breeding  and  in  time  they  would  no  longer  be 
known  for  their  small  size.  On  the  other  hand,  if  one  wishes  to 
retain  the  small  size  of  the  pony,  or  to  diminish  it  still  farther, 
all  that  need  be  done  is  to  restrict  the  food  and  unite  the  smallest 
to  the  smallest  in  breeding.  The  same  is  true  of  any  character 
one  wishes  to  propagate.  From  this  it  can  be  readily  observed 
that  we  have  two  forces  operating.  The  first  is  that  like  tends 
to  produce  like,  and  the  second  that  if  any  improvement  is 
brought  about,  it  is  through  variation. 

VARIATION    IS    THE    BASIS    OF    IMPROVEMENT 

If  characters  were  absolutely  fixed  and  unchangeable,  then  no 
improvement  could  be  secured.  The  size  of  the  pony  could 
neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  and  the  milk  flow  of  cattle 
would  remain  constant  from  generation  to  generation,  and  the 
offspring  would  be  no  better  than  the  parent.  Variation,  then, 
is  the  basis  of  improvement  among  farm  animals. 

Variation  universal  among  farm  animals.  —  No  two  animals 
are  alike.  To  those  unfamiliar  with  swine,  each  pig  of  a  litter 
may  look  exactly  like  the  others,  yet  the  trained  eye  readily 
recognizes  differences  and  can  describe  each  so  that  those  with 
equal  training  may  recognize  them.  These  differences  extend  to 
all  characters.  Two  cows  of  the  same  breed  may  differ  widely 
in  the  richness  of  their  milk ;  two  steers  of  like  breeding  differ 
widely  in  their  ability  to  fatten  and  the  beef  may  also  differ, 
the  loin  of  one  being  fine  and  tender  while  the  other  may  be 
coarse  in  grain.  Of  two  sheep  of  the  same  breed,  one  may 
possess  wool  of  bright  luster,  fine  crimp,  and  even  throughout; 
the  other  may  have  wool  rather  coarse,  no  crimp,  and  differ 
much  in  various  parts  of  the  body.  There  is  free  variation 
among  living  things. 


THE  BREEDING   OF  ANIMALS,   IN  GENERAL  73 

Kinds  of  variation.  —  Since  variation  extends  to  each  char- 
acter, it  may  aid  us  in  a  clearer  understanding  of  variation  among 
.farm  animals  if  we  consider  the  subject  from  four  points  of 
view.  First,  we  will  consider  that  variation  may  be  expressed 
only  in  form  and  size.  This  is  quantitative  variation,  having  to 
do  with  degree  only.  Such  variation  is  the  simplest  form,  and 
we  observe  evidences  of  it  on  every  hand.  For  example,  of 
two  horses  of  the  same  breed,  one  may  be  large,  the  other  small ; 
on  the  same  animal  one  foot  may  be  larger  than  the  others ;  the 
two  ears  may  not  be  of  the  same  size ;  one  eye  may  be  larger 
than  the  other.  Between  two  dairy  cows  of  the  same  breed, 
one  may  have  a  very  large,  well-proportioned  udder,  the  other 
small  and  irregular  in  shape.  Illustrations  of  the  first  class  are 
without  number.  The  second  class  of  variation  is  that  which  is 
expressed  in  the  quality,  as  distinct  from  form  and  size.  This 
is  qualitative  variation;  that  is,  having  to  do  with  characters 
only.  Evidences  of  this  are  also  abundant.  For  example,  of 
all  the  cows  in  existence,  no  two  yield  milk  containing  the  same 
amount  of  fat;  in  fact,  the  individual  cow  varies  widely  from  day 
to  day  in  the  percentage  of  fat  contained  in  the  milk.  Again, 
no  two  pieces  of  beef  are  exactly  alike  in  flavor,  tenderness, 
juiciness,  and  the  like.  The  quality  of  no  two  horses  is  alike, — 
one  has  coarse,  rough  hair  and  a  thick  hide,  the  other  has  smooth, 
soft  hair  and  a  smooth,  pliable  hide.  The  third  class  of  varia- 
tion has  to  do  with  the  function  or  with  the  activity  of  the  vari- 
ous organs  and  parts  of  the  body,  such  as  muscular  activity, 
glandular  secretions,  and  the  like.  There  are  many  examples  of 
this,  such  as  variation  in  the  milk  flow,  some  cows  yielding  as 
high  as  128  pounds  in  a  single  day ;  variation  in  the  fertility, 
some  cows  producing  only  four  or  five  young  in  their  lifetime, 
while  the  Angus  cow  Old  Granny  (No.  1  of  the  Angus  Herd 
Book)  produced  twenty-five,  the  last  one  in  her  twenty-ninth 
year ;  variation  in  speed,  scent,  and  in  fact  all  functions. 
The  fourth  class  of  variations  has  to  do  with  deviations  from 


74 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


the  pattern,  especially  as  regards  repeated  parts,  such  as  ex- 
tra toes,  extra  teats  on  swine,  and  the  like.  This  class  is  not  so 
common  among  animals,  but  evidences  are  everywhere  observed 
among  plants,  as  stooling  in  wheat,  oats,  corn,  and  the  like.     It 


Fig.  35.  —  Suffolk    Stallion  "  Rendleshau    Scorcer. 


Thr. 


d. 


The  Suffolk  draft  horse,  a  native  of  Suffolk  County,  England,  is  a  very  massive, 
short-legged  breed,  possessing  clean  legs  and  a  docile,  teachable  disposition. 
In  weight  the  stallions  vary  from  1400  to  1900  pounds  and  the  mares  from 
1200  to  1600  pounds.  The  height  varies  from  15  to  16^  hands.  The  breed 
color  is  chestnut,  varying  from  a  bright  to  a  dark  shade. 

is  familiar  in  the  doubling  of  flowers,  in  which  the  parts  may 
be  much  repeated. 

It  will  be  comparatively  simple  to  recognize  variation  and  to 
make  improvement  in  any  of  the  breeds  of  farm  animals  if  these 


THE  BREEDING    OF  ANIMALS,   IN   GENERAL  75 

classes  of  variation  are  kept  clearly  in  mind.  Not  all  kinds 
of  variation  are  desired.  The  qualitative  variations  are  most 
sought. 

PROXIMATE  CAUSES  OF  VARIATION 

The  conditions  that  bring  about  variation  are  worthy  much 
consideration  since  one,  by  modifying  these  conditions,  can  aid 
in  producing  variation  in  a  desired  direction.  For  example,  if 
we  want  to  increase  the  milk  flow  of  cattle,  the  conditions 
that  will  cause  them  to  vary  in  that  direction  are  of  much  im- 
portance and  should  be  well  understood.  In  general,  variation 
results  from  environment,  from  crossing  dissimilar  animals,  and 
from  use  or  disuse,  all  of  which  are  under  the  control  of  man. 

Environment.  —  Of  all  the  external  conditions  bringing  about 
variation  in  farm  animals,  those  influences  that  we  sum  up 
under  the  term  "  environment  "  are  by  far  the  most  important. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  through  the  ability  to  change  the 
environment  of  animals  that  man  is  able  to  induce  variation  and 
improvement.  Among  animals  in  a  state  of  nature,  we  define 
environment  as  those  conditions  of  climate  and  food  that  con- 
cern the  life  of  the  animal.  Among  farm  animals  the  conditions 
of  environment  are  somewhat  changed  or  enlarged,  and  we  are 
accustomed  to  think  of  it  as  the  sum  of  all  of  those  conditions 
that  are  influenced  through  association  with  man.  The  chief 
factors  of  environment  through  which  man  seeks  to  control  or 
improve  farm  animals  are  those  of  climate,  food,  and  care.  The 
environment  means  the  "  surroundings." 

The  climate  and  the  kind  of  animals  that  exist  in  it  are  closely 
related.  The  characters  that  are  most  often  affected  are  those 
that  have  to  do  with  size  and  the  external  covering  of  the  animal. 
The  natural  relation  of  climate  to  size  is  that  animals  inhabiting 
cold  climates  are  usually  small  as  compared  with  those  of  the 
same  species  inhabiting  warm  climates.  Man  modifies  the 
natural  effect  of  climate  through  the  housing  that  he  affords  farm 


76  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

animals  ;  hence  he  can  move  animals  from  one  climate  to  another 
without  serious  results.  Many  animals  show  ease  of  acclima- 
tization to  wide  changes  of  climate. 

Climate  has  a  marked  effect  on  the  external  coat  of  the  animal. 
When  farm  animals  are  exposed  to  cold,  damp  weather,  the  hair 
becomes  longer  and  thicker  than  if  protected.  This  heavy 
coat  is  produced  at  the  sacrifice  of  flesh.  In  some  instances 
the  exposure  produces  a  double  coat  of  hair,  an  upper  one 
being  long  and  wavy  and  an  under  one  short,  fine,  and  fur- 
like.    The  Galloway  cattle  furnish  a  good  illustration. 

The  food  supply  is  of  prime  importance  in  effecting  variation 
and  improvement  among  farm  animals.  In  general,  full  feeding 
increases  size.  No  other  conditions  influence  development  to 
a  greater  extent  than  the  food  supply.  Large  breeds  are  devel- 
oped from  small  ones  largely  by  increasing  the  food  supply. 
In  addition  to  the  increase  in  size,  there  is  also  an  increase  in  the 
constitutional  vigor  when  the  animal  is  well  fed.  Withholding 
the  food  supply  not  only  arrests  development  but  weakens  the 
capacity  for  future  development  as  well.  Thus  it  is  that  ani- 
mals passing  through  such  periods  of  arrested  development 
may  never  attain  the  development  which  they  otherwise  would 
reach.  In  order  to  secure  increased  development — develop- 
ment of  productive  function — the  animal  must  be  supplied 
with  more  food  than  is  required  for  the  performance  of  the  nor- 
mal function.  Again,  there  is  a  correlation  between  the  food 
supply  and  the  kind  of  product.  The  Islands  of  Great  Britain 
have  developed  more  high  grades  of  flesh-producing  animals 
than  any  other  country,  and  we  find  nutritious  pastures  over 
almost  all  of  that  country. 

The  care  that  farm  animals  receive  will  go  a  long  way  towards 
determining  the  extent  of  variation  they  are  likely  to  undergo. 
Farm  animals  that  are  well  cared  for,  that  is,  properly  housed, 
fed,  watered,  groomed,  exercised,  and  the  like,  cannot  fail  to 
respond  to  such  treatment.     Many  a  man  has  fallen  short  of 


THE  BREEDING    OF  ANIMALS,   IN  GENERAL  77 

success  in  breeding  by  depending  upon  blood  alone  for  improve- 
ment of  his  stock.  He  has  forgotten  that  all  of  our  improved 
breeds  are  the  product  of  adequate  nutrition  combined  with 
intelligent  breeding,  suitable  environment,  sufficient  shelter, 
and  kindly  care. 

Crossing.  —  The  uniting  of  dissimilar  animals  is  another 
cause  of  variation.  Up  to  the  time  of  Bakewell,  cross-breeding 
was  one  of  the  chief  means  by 
which  improvement  was  sought. 
This  was  before  the  time  of 
pedigree  books,  and  crossing 
was  made  easy  from  the  fact 
that  no  record  of  the  breeding 
was  kept.  It  was  also  observed 
that  the  uniting  of  two  animals 
that    were    unrelated,    or  that 

had  existed  under  different  en-    __    __ 

Fig.  36.  —  Suffolk  Mare     Bawdsey 

vironment,  resulted  in  increased  Pearl."    Three  years  old. 

constitutional  vigor  and  in  many 

cases  in  greater  prolificacy,  and  often  individual  improve- 
ments. The  great  difficulty  came  when  they  attempted  to 
breed  these  cross-bred  animals.  The  offspring  of  cross-bred 
animals  varied  widely,  some  were  good,  more  poor,  and  no 
one  could  foretell  which  way  the  offspring  would  tend  to  de- 
velop. While  crossing  is  a  cause  of  much  variation,  the  results 
are  usually  disappointing  in  the  end.  The  fact  must  be  recog- 
nized, however,  that  the  abundant  crossing  practiced  by  the 
early  British  breeders  gave  to  the  animals  a  plasticity  of  con- 
formation that  prepared  them  for  quick  improvement  when 
subjected  to  the  Bakewell  method. 

SELECTION 

The  purpose  of  selection  is  to  modify  the  type  to  suit  our 
purpose,  to  prevent  as  far  as  possible  the  production  of  unde- 


78  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

sirable  individuals,  and  to  encourage  the  production  of  those 
individuals  that  meet  the  demand.  In  choosing  farm  animals 
for  breeding  purposes,  there  are  at  least  three  factors  to  be  taken 
into  consideration :  First,  the  perfection  of  the  individual  as  a 
representative  of  its  race  or  type,  or  the  individual  merit  of  the 
animal  as  a  specimen;  second,  the  capacity  of  the  individual 
to  reproduce  itself  or  to  show  improvement,  or  the  pedigree  of 
the  animal ;  and  third,  the  suitability  of  the  two  individuals 
to  be  mated. 

Individual  merit.  —  It  is  often  a  question  as  to  whether  we 
should  pay  more  attention  to  the  individual  merit  of  the  animal 
or  to  its  pedigree.  It  cannot  be  said  that  they  are  equal,  or  that 
one  is  more  important  than  the  other.  There  are  two  general 
principles  in  this  connection  that  should  always  be  borne  in 
mind  :  the  offspring  of  an  inferior  individual  with  a  good  pedi- 
gree is  very  likely  to  possess  merit ;  many  of  the  offspring  of  a 
superior  individual  with  a  poor  pedigree  will,  in  all  probability, 
be  distinctly  inferior  in  merit.  In  other  words,  no  matter 
what  the  individual  merits  of  an  animal  may  be,  unless  he  has 
inherited  these  qualities  equally  from  his  ancestors,  we  can- 
not expect  him  to  transmit  them  with  any  degree  of  cer- 
tainty. 

Pedigree.  —  The  capacity  of  the  individual  to  reproduce  itself 
or  to  show  improvement  depends  much  upon  his  ancestors;  that 
is,  upon  his  pedigree.  Pedigree  is  a  record  of  the  ancestry 
of  an  animal ;  it  furnishes,  therefore,  a  guaranty  of  the  purity 
of  the  stock.  The  book  in  which  such  records  are  kept  is 
called  a  herd-book.  The  mere  fact  that  the  lineage  of  an  animal 
is  known,  is  a  certain  indication  of  the  quality  of  the  animal, 
but  this  fact  does  not  indicate  the  capacity  of  the  individual  to 
reproduce  itself.  The  knowledge  of  the  individual  quality  of 
the  animals  making  up  a  pedigree  is  an  important  factor.  Char- 
acters will  be  transmitted  in  proportion  to  the  degree  with  which 
they  have  become  fixed  in  the  parents.     We  are  accustomed  to 


THE  BREEDING    OF  ANIMALS,    IN    GENERAL 


79 


associate  great  length  of  pedigree  with  high  breeding  quality. 
Historical  evidence  goes  to  show  that  we  place  too  high  value 
on  extreme  length  of  pedigree.     Many  of  our  pure  breeds  that 


Fig.   37.  —  Hackney   Coach  Stallion   "Foundation. 

wood,  Attica,  N.  Y. 


Owned    at   Maple- 


The  Hackney  coach  horse  originated  in  England,  in  the  counties  of  Suffolk, 
Norfolk,  and  York.  This  breed  is  noted  particularly  for  style  and  high  action. 
In  height  there  is  much  variation.  There  are  Hackney  ponies  under  14 
hands,  Hackney  cobs  that  are  larger  than  the  ponies,  and  Hackney  coaches 
over  16  hands,  the  weight  varying  accordingly.  Chestnut  is  the  most 
popular  color,  although  bays,  blacks,  browns,  and  other  colors  are  of  frequent 
occurrence.  This  is  the  most  popular  breed  of  coach  horses  when  high-step- 
ping action  is  desired. 


80  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

show  a  high  tendency  to  reproduce  their  characteristics  have 
secured  these  qualities  from  a  comparatively  short  line  of 
animals  noted  for  their  breeding  qualities.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  trace  the  actual  influence  of  the  parents  back  of  the  fourth 
or  fifth  parents,  in  a  number  of  cases.  It  is  the  individuals 
making  up  the  pedigree  for  the  last  four  or  five  generations  that 
are  of  great  influence  in  giving  any  individual  the  power  to  trans- 
mit qualities ;  and  if  all  of  the  individuals  constituting  the 
pedigree  for  these  generations  have  the  qualities  that  we  rec- 
ognize as  good,  we  may  count  upon  the  animals  transmitting 
their  qualities  with  such  a  degree  of  certainty  that  it  makes 
little  difference  what  the  individuals  were  back  of  that  point. 

Of  late  there  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  the  part 
each  ancestor  contributes  in  the  total  heritage.  Galton  was 
one  of  the  first  to  answer  this  question.  While  he  answered  it 
with  much  hesitation,  his  suggestions  received  considerable 
support  and  have  come  to  be  known  as  "Galton'sLawof  ancestral 
heredity."  Galton  set  forth  the  idea  that  one-half  of  the  full 
heritage  comes  from  the  parents ;  one-fourth  from  the  grand- 
parents ;  one-eighth  from  the  great  grandparents ;  one-sixteenth 
from  the  great,  great  grandparents,  and  so  on  to  infinity. 
This  being  true,  an  offspring  will  procure  f }  of  its  full  heritage 
from  the  five  nearest  generations  of  ancestors. 

In  selection,  the  performance  of  the  animal,  when  available, 
as  it  is  in  race  horses  and  dairy  cows,  should  also  be  considered. 
The  record  of  performance  affords  very  valuable  information 
as  to  what  the  offspring  will  probably  be  like.  When  breeding 
dairy  cows,  if  one  unites  two  animals  of  low-producing  strains,  as 
shown  by  the  records,  his  chance  of  procuring  a  high-producing 
result  are  not  very  great.-  On  the  other  hand,  if  one  unites 
two  animals  of  high-producing  strains,  as  shown  by  the  records, 
his  chance  of  procuring  a  high-producing  offspring  are  very  good, 
although  not  sure,  as  there  may  be  a  certain  influence  of  the 
heritage  from  the  very  early  ancestors  whose  records  were  not  so 


THE  BREEDING    OF  ANIMALS,   IN   GENERAL 


81 


good.  There  is  no  factor  of  more  use  than  the  record  of  per- 
formance, although  some  breeders  push  it  to  an  extreme.  If 
one  wishes  to  increase  the  performance,  he  must  select  the  indi- 
viduals upon  their  performance  rather  than  on  fancy.  If  ani- 
mals are  selected,  however,  wholly  by  performance,  without 
regard  to  form,  we  are  likely  to  lose  the  best  conformation. 

There  is  another  reason  for  selecting  animals  with  a  pedigree 
and  a  record  of  performance,  which  is  entirely  a  commercial 
one.  Animals  registered  in  a  herd  book  and  that  have  a  rec- 
ord of  performance  back  of  them  are  more  likely  to  reproduce 
themselves  and  will  command  a  higher  price  in  the  market ; 
and  there  is  always  a  good  market  for  such  stock,  as  the 
supply  is  limited. 

Mating.  —  In  selecting  animals,  we  must  consider  the  suit- 
ability of  the  two  animals  to  mate  together.  We  have  already 
seen  that  no  two  animals  are  alike,  and  since  two  animals  are 
essential  in  the  reproduction,  the  offspring  can  never  be  exactly 
like  both  parents.  We  must 
strike  an  average  between  the 
characteristics  of  the  parents 
and  what  we  expect  to  get  in 
the  offspring.  As  compared 
with  its  parents  the  offspring 
of  two  individuals  will  fall 
into  one  of  the  following  three 
classes :  First,  a  perfect  com- 
bination of  the  qualities  of 
both  parents;  this  is  called 
breeding  true.  Second,  a  pre- 
ponderance of  characters  of 
either  parent;  this  is  called 
prepotency ;  and  third,  the  offspring  may  exhibit  none  or  few 
of  the  characters  of  either  parent  ;  this  is  called  reversion. 

When  the  offspring  shows  equal  blending  of  the  qualities  of 


Fig.  38. — Hackney  Stallion  "Fan- 
dango M."     Owned  by  A.  R.  Gillis. 


82  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

both  parents,  the  mating  is  considered  to  be  most  successful. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  almost  never  fully  attained.  It  is 
approached  in  proportion  to  the  similarity  of  the  parents. 
Uniformity  of  type  and  characteristics  in  a  herd  or  flock  is  one 
of  the  very  desirable  things,  for  many  reasons.  The  uniformity 
that  is  secured  by  reason  of  the  equal  degree  of  characters  secured 
from  each  parent  is  the  most  desirable  type  of  uniformity. 

More  often  the  offspring  will  resemble  one  parent  more  than 
the  other,  and  in  this  case  one  parent  is  said  to  be  prepotent 
over  the  other.  This  resemblance  will  vary  from  a  very  slight 
preponderance  of  the  characteristics  of  one  parent,  up  to  a  great 
over-balance,  amounting  almost  to  a  complete  exclusion  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  other  parent.  This  question  of  prepo- 
tency is  one  of  the  most  important  having  to  do  with  selection, 
and  one  which  will  be  further  discussed  in  the  chapters  on 
breeding  the  various  classes  of  farm  animals. 

When  the  offspring  shows  no  resemblance  to  either  parent, 
but  to  some  near  ancestor,  it  is  called  reversion ;  if  to  some  of  the 
far  removed  ancestors  it  is  called  atavism.  Examples  are  often 
seen :  as,  in  the  case  of  a  pure  Angus  cow,  which  is  naturally 
black,  giving  birth  to  a  red  calf;  the  case  of  Poland  China 
swine,  naturally  black,  occasionally  possessing  a  sandy  tint  on 
the  hair. 

Two  animals  to  be  suitable  for  mating  must  be  alike  in  gen- 
eral physical  characters.  Otherwise  the  outcome  of  a  union 
cannot  be  foretold.  When  the  offspring  shows  good  qualities, 
the  mating  of  the  parents  is  considered  a  fortunate  nick.  The 
history  of  farm  animals  is  full  of  such  nicks.  The  success  or 
failure  of  a  stock  breeder  very  often  depends  on  his  ability  to 
discover  these  nicks  and  to  make  use  of  them.  Some  breeders 
become  very  skilful  in  these  matters,  even  though  they  may 
not  be  able  to  give  reasons  for  their  choice  or  to  instruct 
others  in  the  same  methods.  Very  often  these  are  untaught 
and  unread  men. 


THE  BREEDING   OF  ANIMALS,   IN   GENERAL  83 


HEREDITY 

For  our  purpose,  we  will  define  heredity  as  the  transmission 
or  passing  down  of  characters  from  parents  to  offspring.  We 
have  already  noted  two  great  forces  underlying  our  breeding 
operations  ;  like  tending  to  beget  like,  which  has  to  do  with 
heredity ;  the  other  the  great  run  of  variation  through  which 
improvement  is  sought  in  our  farm  animals.  On  heredity  all 
successful  breeding  operations  depend.  We  have  just  noted  the 
kinds  of  variation,  as  well  as  the  causes  that  lead  to  their 
appearance,  and  now  come  to  the  question  whether  and  to  ivhat 
extent  such  variations  are  hereditary  or  transmissible  to  the 
offspring. 

The  extent  to  which  these  variations  are  transmitted  is  a 
very  important  matter,  because  variations  that  are  not  re- 
tained are  of  no  importance  in  breeding,  though  they  may  be 
of  much  consequence  to  the  individual  possessing  them.  If 
they  are  transmitted,  they  influence  the  race  for  good  or  bad, 
depending  on  whether  desirable  or  undesirable.  Practical  men 
work  on  the  supposition  that  these  variations  or  so-called 
modified  characters  are  transmitted.  All  recognize  the  neces- 
sity of  the  highest  development  of  the  individual  for  the  specific 
purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  If  one  is  to  breed  the 
best  kind  of  beef  animals,  he  must  unite  animals  of  the  best  beef 
strains.  If  one  is  to  breed  the  highest  class  of  trotting  horses, 
he  must  unite  horses  that  can  trot  fast.  If  one  is  to 
produce  cows  yielding  a  high  milk  flow,  he  must  unite  animals 
with  high  records  of  performance.  Working  breeders  are  uni- 
versally of  this  opinion.  All  of  our  improved  breeds  of  ani- 
mals are  comparatively  recent.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  we 
could  have  secured  such  development  in  so  short  a  time,  unless 
it  came  through  the  inheritance  of  modified  characters. 

Inheritance  of  disease.  —  In  all  of  the  early  writings  on  hered- 
ity, there  is  much  discussion  on  the  heredity  of  disease,  and 


84  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

nearly  every  disease  has  at  one  time  been  classed  as  transmis- 
sible. In  a  good  many  cases,  diseases  seem  to  pass  from  gen- 
eration to  generation  with  regularity  or  even  certainty  and  are 
often  classed  as  hereditary  diseases,  whereas  the  facts  are  that 
such  troubles  are  germ  diseases  and  are  due  to  infection. 
Again,  there  are  diseases  peculiar  to  certain  conformations, 
such  as  a  curb  or  a  spavined  hock  on  the  horse.  The  peculiar 
conformation  may  be  hereditary,  and  the  animal  contracts 
the  disease  because  of  the  conformation,  but  the  disease  as 
such  was  not  transmitted.  The  results  are  the  same,  but  it  is 
best  to  state  it  correctly. 

Prepotency  is  the  power  that  one  parent  has  over  the  other 
in  determining  the  character  of  the  offspring.  It  is  usually 
considered  from  two  points  of  view;  first,  "race"  or  "breed" 
prepotency,  when  all  the  individuals  of  the  race  or  breed  are 
possessed  of  such  power  in  transmitting  their  characters ;  and 
second,  "individual"  prepotency,  when  the  individual  possesses 
the  power  to  transmit  its  own  characters  to  the  offspring  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  other  parent. 

Breed  prepotency  is  clearly  exhibited  when  two  distinct 
breeds  are  crossed,  as  the  offspring  will  more  clearly  resemble 
one  breed  than  the  other.  Among  cattle,  the  Galloways  are 
noted  for  being  prepotent  in  color  and  in  the  polled  charac- 
ter, for  when  crossed  upon  other  breeds,  the  offspring  are 
nearly  all  black  and  hornless.  The  Herefords  are  prepotent  in 
transmitting  their  white  face  to  the  offspring  when  crossed  on 
other  breeds. 

Individual  prepotency  is  a  very  great  factor  in  breed  im- 
provement. Many  of  the  modern  breeds  of  farm  animals  owe 
their  existence  to  the  individual  characters  of  the  animal  that 
founded  the  line.  Hambletonian  10  among  trotting  horses 
is  an  example.  He  sired  horses  who  in  turn  sired  animals  of 
great  speed,  with  the  result  that  most  of  the  Standard  Bred 
horses  trace  either  directly  or  indirectly  to  Hambletonian  10. 


THE  BREEDING   OF  ANIMALS,   IN  GENERAL  85 

Again,  the  breed  of  American  saddle  horses  owes  much  of  its 
excellence  to  the  individual  prepotency  of  Denmark.  The 
families  of  the  various  breeds  of  farm  animals  that  owe  their 
existence  to  the  individual  prepotency  of  the  animal  that  founded 
them  are  almost  without  number,  such  as  the  St.  Lambert 
family  descended  from  Stoke  Pogis,  1259,  and  the  Eurotas  family 
descended  from  Eurotas,  2454,  among  Jerseys ;  the  Johanna 
family  descended  from  Johanna,  1421,  and  the  De  Kol  family 
descended  from  De  Kol  2d,  734,  among  Holsteins ;  the  Perfec- 
tion family  descended  from  Chief  Perfection,  32144,  and  the 
Corwin  family  descended  from  Tom  Corwin  2d,  2037,  among 
Poland  China  swine. 

Since  prepotency  is  of  so  great  importance  in  improvement 
among  farm  animals,  those  influences  that  tend  to  produce  it 
in  the  individual  are  worthy  of  note.  While  many  of  the 
factors  surrounding  prepotency  are  not  well  understood,  yet 
those  that  do  aid  and  are  under  the  control  of  man  are :  purity 
of  breeding,  strong  constitutional  development,  and  in-breeding. 
Purity  of  breeding  strengthens  prepotency  in  individual  as  well 
as  in  the  breed  or  race.  It  strengthens  prepotency  because  it 
makes  for  stability.  The  introduction  of  outside  animals 
becomes  a  disturbing  factor  in  the  stability  of  the  characters  of 
the  individual  and  therefore  a  disturbing  factor  in  the  cer- 
tainty of  transmission.  On  the  other  hand,  each  generation  of 
pure  breeding  adds  to  the  stability  of  the  type  and  to  the  cer- 
tainty of  transmission. 

Vigor  in  the  individual  is  a  very  important  factor  when 
selecting  for  prepotency.  This  is  sometimes  lost  sight  of,  as 
in  selecting  hens  for  high  egg  production  when  nothing  but 
production  is  considered,  and  always  with  serious  results,  for 
without  vitality  all  else  will  fail. 

In-breeding  aids  prepotency,  for  it  strengthens  dominant 
characters.  The  more  inbred  the  animals  the  more  intense 
their  power  of    transmission.     This  applies,  however,  to  good 


86  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  bad  characters  alike,  and  will  be  discussed  in  the  para- 
graph on  in-and-in  breeding  (p.  92). 

These  three  factors  acting  in  conjunction,  and  when  properly 
manipulated,  give  the  highest  degree  of  prepotency  attainable, 
and  all  are  under  the  control  of  the  breeder. 

The  prepotency  of  the  male  is  given  more  consideration  than 
of  the  female.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  more  noticeable, 
as  the  sire  is  the  parent  of  many  more  animals  than  the  dam. 
A  stallion  may  sire  fifty  or  more  foals  in  a  year,  whereas  the 
dam  can  give  birth  to  but  one,  This  is  a  fortunate  view  of  the 
matter,  since  improvement  can  be  much  more  cheaply  brought 
about  through  a  good  sire  from  the  mere  fact  that  he  is 
represented  in  more  progeny. 

Prolificacy  or  fecundity.  —  For  our  purpose  we  will  assume 
that  these  terms  have  the  same  meaning,  and  that  they  refer 
to  the  fruitfulness  or  the  number  of  young  brought  forth. 
This  is  a  very  important  consideration  in  practical  operations. 
Breeds  vary  widely  in  this  respect,  it  being  a  characteristic  of 
some  to  give  birth  to  more  than  they  can  raise,  whereas  others 
are  not  so  fruitful.  Under  "functional  variation"  (p.  73)  we 
have  noted  the  Angus  cow  Old  Granny  (No.  1  in  Angus  Herd 
Book).  She  produced  twenty-five  calves,  the  last  one  in  the 
twenty-ninth  year  of  her  life.  Old  Fanny  Cook,  the  English 
Thoroughbred  mare,  produced  fifteen  foals,  giving  birth  to 
twins  at  twenty-two  years  of  age.  The  Thoroughbred  mare 
Pocahontas  also  produced  fifteen  living  foals  and  lived  to  the 
old  age  of  thirty-three  years.  In  this  connection  it  is  interest- 
ing to  note  the  number  of  performances  some  of  the  leading 
males  of  the  various  breeds  have  sired.  Among  Holstein  cattle, 
the  bull  Hengerveld  De  Kol,  23,102,  is  the  sire  of  ninety-eight 
daughters  with  advanced  registry  records  ;  Paul  Beets  De  Kol, 
22,235,  of  ninety-three  ;  and  Lord  Netherland  De  Kol,  22,187,  of 
eighty-nine.  The  Jersey  bull  Exile  of  St.  Lambert  has  ninety- 
four  daughters  in  the  Register  of  Merit.     Among  Standard 


THE  BREEDING    OF  ANIMALS,   IN   GENERAL 


87 


Bred  (trotting  or  pacing)  horses  the  stallion  Gambetta  Wilks, 
4659,  has  two  hundred  and  four  standard  performers  ;  Onward, 
1411,  has  one  hundred  and  ninety-eight ;  Allerton,  5128,  has  one 


Fig.  39.  —  "  Decorateur,  "  French  Coach  Stallion. 

The  French  coach  horse  is  a  native  of  France.  This  breed  is  similar  to  the 
Hackney,  but  possessing  more  bone  and  substance  and  lacking  much  of  the 
flashy  action.  In  weight  stallions  vary  from  1100  to  1400  pounds,  with  mares 
100  to  200  pounds  lighter.  The  height  varies  from  15  to  lO1^  hands.  Bays 
and  browns  are  the  most  popular  colors,  although  there  are  many  blacks  and 
chestnuts. 


hundred  and  ninety;  and  there  are  more  than  a  score  with  over 
one  hundred.  The  importance  of  this  high  fertility,  from  a 
profitable  point  of  view,  need  not  be  dwelt  upon. 


88  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

In  these  cases  much  depended  upon  the  opportunity.  The 
better  the  sire  the  better  will  be  the  class  of  dams  offered  and 
hence  the  better  the  offspring,  all  of  which  leads  to  further 
opportunities.  Another  fact  in  this  connection  well  worth  re- 
membering is  that  imported  animals  are  seldom  fertile  until 
acclimated.  In  general,  distance  makes  less  difference  than 
altitude,  temperature,  sunlight,  and  food  supply. 

Sterility.  —  One  of  the  breeders'  greatest  difficulties  is  ste- 
rility among  animals.  The  causes  which  lead  to  sterility  are 
very  many,  some  of  which  are  well  understood  and  are  more 
or  less  preventable,  while  others  are  not  so  well  understood 
and  beyond  control.  If  due  to  the  male,  then  all  the  females 
put  to  him  will  be  sterile,  whereas  if  due  to  the  female,  she  alone 
fails  to  breed.  Some  of  the  causes  that  can  be  easily  controlled 
are  as  follows :  confinement  and  lack  of  exercise ;  irregular 
supply  of  food  and  lack  of  uniformity  in  conditions ;  food  lack- 
ing the  proper  nutrients  or  containing  too  much  sugar ;  animals 
in  too  fat  condition ;  and  in-and-in  breeding,  close  breeding,  ex- 
cessive breeding;  and  the  like.  Again,  the  tendency  to  sterility 
or  lack  of  fertility  is  often  hereditary.  The  Duchess  family 
among  Shorthorns  affords  a  good  example.  This  family  was 
always  known  as  "shy  breeders,"  and  this  was  considered  one 
of  its  valuable  attributes.  The  breeders  argued  that  this 
diminished  the  numbers  and  kept  the  price  very  high.  The 
results  were  that  this  most  excellent  family  of  Shorthorns  dis- 
appeared because  of  its  infertility. 

Relative  influence  of  parents.  —  No  question  in  the  breeding 
of  farm  animals  has  given  rise  to  more  discussion  than  the 
influence  that  each  parent  exerts  on  the  offspring.  As  one 
reviews  the  literature  on  the  subject,  he  collects  the  following 
ideas :  the  male  controls  the  external  and  the  female  the  in- 
ternal organs  of  the  offspring;  the  male  controls  the  forward 
and  upper  parts  of  the  body  and  the  mental  qualities  of  the 
offspring;    that  parent  which  has  the  stronger  nervous  and 


THE  BREEDING   OF  ANIMALS,   IN  GENERAL  89 

sexual  organization  controls  the  characters  of  the  offspring; 
the  female  controls  the  characters  because  of  her  close  asso- 
ciation with  the  offspring;  and  so  on,  almost  without  number. 
So  far  as  is  now  known,  the  parents  play  an  equal  part  in 
their  control  of  the  characters  of  the  offspring.  This,  of  course, 
is  aside  from  the  question  of  prepotency  discussed  above,  and 
in  which  case  either  parent  is  likely  to  dominate  over  the 
other.  In  general,  that  parent  possessed  of  the  purer  breeding 
and  whose  characters  are  the  most  intensified  and  most  stable, 
will  control  the  characters  of  the  offspring,  be  it  male  or 
female. 

SYSTEMS   OF   BREEDING 

The  system  of  breeding  to  be  employed  will  depend  on 
the  purpose  of  the  breeder.  In  the  breeding  of  farm  animals 
the  breeder  has  one  of  two  objects  in  view,  —  the  one  herd  im- 
provement, the  other  breed  improvement.  These  purposes  are 
separate  and  distinct.  In  herd  improvement,  the  object  is  the 
betterment  of  the  individual  herd.  It  is  perhaps  the  cheapest 
and  most  convenient  of  all  forms  of  breeding  and  productive 
of  the  most  rapid  results.  In  breed  improvement,  the  object 
is  the  betterment  of  the  entire  race.  It  is  perhaps  the  most 
expensive,  and  calls  for  much  intelligence  on  the  part  of  the. 
breeder  as  well  as  much  patience  and  painstaking  labor. 

Grading  consists  in  mating  unimproved  farm  animals  with 
those  more  highly  improved  or  with  those  that  are  purely 
bred.  The  pure-bred  may  be  either  sire  or  dam,  but  for  eco- 
nomic reasons  the  sire  is  usually  the  pure-bred  parent.  This 
mode  of  breeding  can  be  used  only  in  herd  improvement,  and  is 
the  one  to  be  recommended  to  the  great  mass  of  stockmen  ;  and 
if  it  could  be  generally  adopted  and  followed,  it  would  add 
millions  to  American  agriculture.  It  is  the  safest  for  beginners 
even  though  they  intend  to  engage  in  the  business  of  breeding 
pure-bred  animals,  as  it  will  bring  out  clearly  the  strong  and 
weak  points  of  the  breed,  and  after  becoming  familiar  with  the 


90  MANUAL   OF  FABM  ANIMALS 

work  they  may  undertake  the  breeding  of  pure-bred  animals 
with  much  better  prospects  of  success. 

The  great  advantage  of  grading  is  that  it  is  cheap,  particu- 
larly when  accomplished  with  the  male.  For  example,  a 
pure-bred  bull,  in  a  herd  of  twenty-five  cows,  will  make  half- 
bloods  of  the  entire  crop  of  offspring,  whereas  if  the  grading 
was  attempted  in  the  other  way,  it  would  require  twenty-five 
pure-bred  cows  and  the  calves  would  show  no  more  improve- 
ment. Furthermore,  if  the  improvement  were  accomplished  with 
the  cows,  it  would  be  in  twenty-five  lines,  each  with  its  shade 
of  difference,  and  not  in  one  line  as  would  be  the  case  were  the 
grading  done  with  the  bull.  This  is  a  very  important  factor 
when  we  consider  the  value  of  uniformity  among  all  classes  of 
farm  animals. 

Crossing,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  77),  consists  in  mating  two 
distinct  breeds  or  families,  and  is  a  powerful  means  of  inducing 
variability.  Because  of  its  strong  tendency  to  produce  varia- 
tion, crossing  is  very  seldom  employed  as  a  system  of  animal 
breeding.  Attention  is  directed  to  it  in  this  connection  because 
it  is  the  mode  employed  in  breeding  mules,  the  offspring  of  a 
jack  and  mare.  The  reciprocal  cross,  or  the  stallion  on  the 
jennet,  gives  an  offspring  called  hinny.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  mule  more  nearly  resembles  the  jack,  having 
long  ears,  large  head,  no  hairs  in  mane  and  tail,  and  very 
small  feet,  whereas  the  hinny  resembles  the  stallion,  having  a 
rather  small  head,  rather  short  ears,  hairs  in  mane  and  tail,  and 
large  feet  similar  to  the  horse. 

While  we  have  mules  and  hinnies  of  both  sexes,  they  are 
sterile;  that  is,  one  cannot  produce  mules  by  mating  a  male 
with  a  female  mule,  nor  will  the  mule  breed  with  either  the  jack 
or  stallion.  The  only  way  to  produce  a  mule  is  to  mate  jack 
and  mare. 

Line-breeding  consists  in  mating  animals  representing  a 
single  line  of  descent.     This  system  of  breeding  is  used  either  in 


THE  BREEDING   OF  ANIMALS,   IN   GENERAL  91 

herd  improvement  or  in  breed  improvement.  Few  of  the  many 
breeds  of  farm  animals,  as  well  as  few  of  the  more  noted  strains 
of  the  various  breeds,  have  been  formed  without  more  or  less 
line-breeding.  Experience  has  shown  that  it  is  not  enough  to 
confine  selection  to  the  limits  of  the  breed,  for  all  breeds  are 
exceedingly  variable,  and  for  best  results  one  must  restrict  his 
selection  to  those  lines  that  most  nearly  approach  the  object 
sought. 

Line-breeding  combines  animals  very  similar  in  their  charac- 
ter, narrows  the  pedigrees  to  few  and  closely  related  lines  of 
descent,  intensifies  characters  both  good  and  bad,  and  thus  gives 
stability  to  the  strain  or  breed.  It  is  a  very  strong  factor  in 
securing  uniformity,  and  increasing  the  prepotency  among  farm 
animals. 

No  method  is  equal  to  that  of  line-breeding  for  the  improve- 
ment of  farm  animals.  It  is  conservative  and  safe.  It  is  free 
from  many  of  the  objections  that  attach  to  other  methods. 
There  are,  however,  two  factors  that  must  not  be  lost  sight  of : 
both  good  and  bad  characters 
alike  are  intensified,  and  the 
importance  of  the  individual  in 
selection  is  great.  Formerly 
much  was  said  against  line- 
breeding,  but  since  the  time  of 
Robert  Bakewell  it  has  been  a 
recognized  factor  in  live-stock 
improvement  (p.  77). 

The    chief    disadvantage    of 

this  System  of  breeding  is  that     Fl°'  40.- French  Coach  Station, 
J  m  °  Five    y  ears    Old.      Imported    by 

the    breeder    is    likely  to    Select         Champlin  Bros.,  Christon,  Iowa. 

by  pedigree,  and  thus  fail  to  note 

the  individuality  of  the  animals  he  is  mating.  A  line-bred  pedi- 
gree is  good  or  bad  according  as  the  animals  composing  it  are 
good  or  bad.     The  breeder  who  selects  by  pedigree  alone  with- 


92  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

out  regard  for  merit  is  likely  to  find  his  herd  deteriorating  in  a 
few  generations,  for  bad  characters,  if  they  exist  in  the  parent, 
will  be  intensified  by  this  method  of  breeding  just  as  rapidly  as 
will  desirable  characters  (p.  78). 

In-breeding  consists  in  mating  animals  closely  related.  It  is 
line-breeding  carried  to  its  limits,  and  consequently  it  intensifies 
all  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  that  system  of  breeding. 
In-breeding  has  been  used  successfully  in  the  improvement  of 
practically  all  of  the  present  breeds  of  farm  animals.  The  sys- 
tem was  first  put  into  regular  practice  by  Robert  Bakewell, 
and  since  that  time  has  been  employed  more  or  less  by  all 
successful  breeders. 

The  objects  of  in-breeding  are  twofold :  First,  more  quickly 
to  secure  desirable  characters  in  the  offspring;  and  second, 
to  render  these  characters  more  stable  that  they  may  be  uni- 
formly transmitted.  Thus  a  certain  parent,  for  example,  a  sire, 
is  found  to  possess  an  unusual  degree  of  excellence  in  some 
particular  which  he  transmits  to  the  offspring.  To  retain  the 
excellency  this  offspring,  if  a  female,  when  of  the  proper  age  is 
mated  with  her  own  sire,  and  this  product,  if  a  female,  is  in  turn 
mated  to  the  same  male  that  was  her  sire  as  well  as  her  grand- 
sire.  This  method  is  resorted  to  for  three  and  often  four  genera- 
tions with  the  view  of  intensifying  and  perpetuating  a  desirable 
character  for  which  the  sire  is  especially  noted. 

There  are  three  forms  of  in-breeding :  First,  mating  sire  with 
daughter,  giving  rise  to  an  offspring  containing  three-fourths  of 
the  blood  lines  of  the  sire.  This  method,  if  followed  up,  pro- 
duces offspring  with  but  one  line  of  ancestry  and  eliminates  the 
characters  of  the  dam.  It  is  practiced  when  it  is  desired  to  in- 
tensify the  characters  possessed  by  the  sire.  Second,  mating  son 
with  dam,  which  gives  rise  to  offspring  containing  three-fourths 
of  the  blood  lines  of  the  dam.  This  method  is  practiced  when  it 
is  desired  to  intensify  the  characters  of  the  dam.  Third,  mating 
brother  with  sister,  a  method  which  preserves  the  characters  of 


THE  BREEDING   OF  ANIMALS,   IN  GENERAL  93 

both  sire  and  dam.  It  is  inferior  to  either  of  the  other  two  in 
strengthening  characters,  and  is  not  so  safe  because  nothing  is 
known  of  the  breeding  of  either  parent. 

There  are  many  advantages  that  follow  this  system  of  breed- 
ing: it  intensifies  characters,  gives  stability  to  the  family, 
increases  the  prepotency,  and  favors  uniformity.  In-breed- 
ing results  in  the  highest  possible  percentage  of  the  desired  blood 
being  retained  in  the  offspring,  and  is  therefore  recognized  as  the 
strongest  of  all  breeding.  It  also  gives  rise  to  the  simplest 
form  of  pedigree.  Since  the  infusion  of  new  strains  shatters 
existing  characters,  no  system  equals  in-breeding  for  perpetu- 
ating characters,  doubling  up  existing  combinations,  as  well 
as  retaining  all  there  is  of  good  in  the  exceptional  individ- 
ual. Capable  of  producing  the  great  improvement  that  it 
is,  in-breeding  is  not  without  its  disadvantages.  It  does  not 
respect  characters;  it  does  not  separate  the  good  from  the  bad, 
but  intensifies  both  good  and  bad  alike.  In-breeding,  if  per- 
sisted in,  results  in  loss  of  fertility  as  well  as  vigor,  which  may 
quickly  lead  to  race  extinction.  These  are  two  most  common 
defects  resulting  from  this  method  of  breeding,  and  they  come 
about  naturally.  Few  animals  are  regular  breeders,  and  a  still 
fewer  number  are  both  vigorous  and  regular  breeders.  Hence, 
when  such  animals  are  in-bred,  the  tendency  is  still  farther  to 
lower  both  the  vitality  and  the  fertility.  When  practicing 
this  method,  therefore,  too  much  cannot  be  made  of  selecting 
for  high  fertility  and  much  vigor. 

There  are  two  situations  under  which  it  may  be  desirable  to 
practice  in-breeding.  One  is  in  grading,  where,  if  we  have  a 
proved  sire,  one  that  is  known  to  get  excellent  offspring,  it  may 
be  entirely  permissible  to  mate  him  with  his  own  daughters 
rather  than  to  procure  a  new  sire,  in  which  the  breeding  power 
is  not  known.  Again,  such  an  exchange  of  sires  as  would  be 
necessary  to  prevent  in-breeding  often  calls  for  a  considerable 
outlay  of  time  and  money. 


94  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  other  condition  under  which  in-breeding  is  permissible 
is  when  one  finds  himself  in  possession  of  a  very  limited  su- 
perior blood  and  is  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  retain  it.  If  he 
breeds  out,  the  desirable  characters  will  be  obliterated.  In  this 
case,  the  only  way  he  can  retain  the  desirable  characters  is  to 


Fig.  41.  —  The  Morgan  Stallion,  "General  Gates,"  at  the  Head  of  the 
U.  S.  Government  Stud  at  Middlebury,  Vt. 

The  Morgan  family  of  trotting  horses  originated  in  Vermont.  These  horses 
can  scarcely  be  classed  as  a  breed,  but  rather  a  family  of  the  American  Trotter. 
They  are  noted  for  their  activity  and  endurance,  but  are  considered  by  many 
as  undersize.  The  average  weight  is  from  900  to  1000  pounds,  and  the  height 
14  to  15  hands.     Bay  with  dark  points  is  the  preferred  color. 


breed  in.  Often  the  risk  is  great,  but  it  is  the  only  way 
the  desired  blood  can  be  retained.  In  such  case  it  is  best  to 
strike  out  boldly  and  know  the  worst  at  once.  Many  breeders 
have  found  themselves  in  just  such  position  and  by  in-breeding 
have  not  only  retained  the  good  characters  but  have  increased 


THE  BREEDING    OF  ANIMALS,   IN   GENERAL  95 

and  intensified  them  by  in-breeding,  and  in  a  few  generations 
have  succeeded  in  building  up  the  best  herds  in  the  breed. 

Breeding  from  the  best.  —  The  advisability  of  breeding  from 
the  best  depends  on  the  situation.  When  one  is  grading,  it  is 
advisable  to  procure  the  very  best  obtainable.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  one  is  building  up  a  pure  herd,  it  is  equally  import- 
ant to  give  due  regard  to  the  strain  with  which  one  is  working. 
That  is  to  say,  in  actual  practice  the  breeder  who  breeds  from 
the  best  without  regard  for  blood  lines  is  likely  to  bring  to- 
gether a  confused  herd,  out  of  which  nothing  of  note  can  be 
established.  Crossing  family  lines  brings  about  much  the  same 
condition  as  crossing  the  breeds,  only  on  a  more  limited  scale. 

From  this  it  must  be  apparent  that  if  one  is  to  secure  the  best 
results  from  any  system  of  breeding  whatsoever,  he  must  have 
due  regard  for  ancestral  lines.  He  must  keep  the  strains  pure, 
intensify  the  desirable  characters,  thus  increasing  prepotency 
and  securing  uniformity.  If  the  purpose  is  herd  improvement, 
grading  is  practicable,  as  it  is  a  cheap,  quick,  and  conserva- 
tive method,  and  if  persisted  in  for  a  few  generations,  develops 
animals  about  equal  to  pure  breds  for  production.  If  the  pur- 
pose is  breed  improvement,  then  line-breeding  or  even  in- 
breeding will  be  found  to  be  most  effective,  for  by  these 
methods  the  ancestral  lines  can  be  kept  true. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE   BREEDING   OF   HORSES   AND   MULES 

While  we  have  no  data  available  in  the  United  States  on 
the  number  of  horses  and  mules  consumed,  or  used  up,  in  a 
year,  yet  a  very  conservative  estimate  would  be  between  four 
and  five  million,  this  to  include  export  animals  as  well  as  those 
consumed  at  home.  These  horses  must  be  replaced  as  conr 
sumed,  or  there  will  be  a  horse  famine.  There  are  ap- 
proximately twenty  million  horses  in  the  United  States,  of 
which  we  will  assume  one-half,  or  ten  million,  are  mares.  If 
we  are  to  raise  between  four  and  five  million  colts,  both  horse 
and  mule,  it  means  that  at  least  one-half,  or  50  per  cent,  of  these 
mares  must  be  bred  each  year. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  horses  that  supply  this 
demand  are  produced  on  the  farms.  Their  production  is  the 
work  of  the  general  farmer,  who  is  primarily  a  grain  raiser,  a 
dairyman,  or  whose  main  business  is  general  farming,  and  who 
raises  horses  because  he  is  so  situated  as  to  be  able  to  propa- 
gate them  with  but  little  inconvenience  to  his  main  work. 
Such  farms  usually  possess  three  advantages:  they  grow  large 
amounts  of  cheap  food ;  they  contain  abundant  range  for  the 
proper  exercise  of  growing  animals;  and  there  is  considerable 
team  work  to  be  done.  On  such  farms  horses  can  be  grown 
with  little  extra  labor  and  at  a  good  profit. 

PLAN    OF    BREEDING 

A  clearly  defined  plan  of  procedure  should  be  thought  out 
before  the  farmer  makes  the  attempt  to  breed  horses.     To  do 

96 


THE  BREEDING   OF  HORSES 


97 


this  a  good  knowledge  of  horses  and  horse-breeding  should  be 
secured.  Breeding  establishments  and  horse-producing  farms 
should  be  visited.  One  should  familiarize  himself  with  the 
methods  of  successful  horse-breeders,  should  note  the  condi- 
tions that  lead  to  success  and  those  that  cause  failure.     The 


Fig.  42.  —  "Carolina."     The  American  Saddler  owned  by  John   B.   Castle- 
man,  LouisviUe,  Ky. 

The  American  saddle  horse  is  a  native  of  the  United  States,  principally  the 
states  of  Kentucky,  Virginia,  and  Missouri.  This  breed  is  noted  for  its  easy 
gaits,  endurance,  and  intelligence.  The  weight  varies  from  900  to  1200  pounds 
and  the  height  from  153^  to  16  hands.  Saddlers  are  of  two  classes  :  (1)  walk- 
trot-canter  horse  ;  (2)  the  five-gaited  horse  ;  walk,  trot,  canter,  rack,  and  run- 
ning walk  or  fox  trot  or  slow  pace. 


intending  horse-breeder  should  take  account  of  his  likes  and 
dislikes.  He  may  prefer  the  light  active  horse  to  the  heavy 
phlegmatic  drafter.  The  horse-producer  should  study  his  con- 
ditions. Some  conditions  will  be  favorable  to  the  production 
of  one  class,  some  to  another.     It  should  be  kept  clearly  in 


h 


98  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

mind,  whatever  the  type  or  class  chosen,  whether  it  is  light  or 
heavy,  or  for  speed  or  draft,  that  none  but  superior  horses  will 
sell  at  remunerative  prices.  There  will  always  be  an  over- 
production of  common  horses,  which  will  be  the  first  to  be 
affected  by  oversupply  and  other  business  depressions,  and  the 
last  to  be  revived.  The  market  should  also  be  studied.  In 
some  sections  the  demand  will  be  for  a  certain  class  and  in  other 
sections  another  class  will  be  in  most  demand. 

Cooperative  breeding.  —  From  observations  made  in  localities 
where  horses  are  bred  in  a  commercial  way,  it  would  seem  ad- 
visable to  breed  on  the  cooperative  plan.  It  is  apparent  that 
the  formation  of  horse-breeding  associations  in  townships  and 
counties  would  do  much  to  advance  the  progress  of  the  industry. 
Such  associations  should  be  formed  of  breeders  who  possess  the 
same  class  or  breed  of  mares.  It  would  be  the  work  of  such 
an  association  to  protect  the  interests  of  its  members,  provide 
suitable  stallions  each  year  for  use  on  the  mares  owned  by  the 
members,  advertise  stock,  attract  buyers,  hold  sales,  make 
exhibits  at  the  county,  district,  and  state  fairs,  hold  meetings 
for  discussion  of  horse-breeding  matters,  and  educate  the  far- 
mers of  the  locality  to  better  methods  of  breeding,  feeding,  and 
developing  marketable  horses. 

Securing  stallions.  —  The  fact  that  mares  are  often  bred  to 
unsuitable  stallions  is,  in  many  instances,  due  more  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  finding  the  right  horse  close  at  hand  than  to  indiffer- 
ence or  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  breeder.  A  fitting  start 
may  be  made  in  grading  up  in  a  certain  district,  and  in  a  few 
years  no  horse  of  the  same  blood  is  to  be  found  to  continue  the 
good  work  in  the  right  direction.  The  consequence  is  that  a 
horse  of  different  breed,  unsuitable  in  many  respects,  is  used 
until  a  more  suitable  sire  can  be  secured,  or  happens  to  enter 
the  district. 

It  often  occurs  that  a  stallion  is  unexpectedly  thrust  on  a 
district  by  a  salesman  of  some  importing  firm.     A  company  is 


THE  BREEDING   OF  HORSES  99 

formed  for  the  purchase  of  the  horse,  and  the  price  is  usually 
high,  as  it  must  contain  many  and  sometimes  questionable  ex- 
penses. The  " company  plan"  of  purchasing  a  stallion  is 
therefore  objectionable.  It  is  much  better  for  the  farmers 
interested  in  horse-breeding  to  get  together  and  choose  one  of 
their  own  members  and  send  him  to  the  importing  stable  or 
horse-breeding  firm  to  purchase  the  stallion.  He  will  have  an 
opportunity  to  choose  and  will  get  one  much  cheaper. 

Undoubtedly,  any  reputable  breeder  or  importer  of  horses 
would  be  glad  to  send  into  any  district  the  horse  desired  by 
a  company  of  farm-breeders  and  in  close  accord  with  their  re- 
quirements as  regards  pedigree,  character,  qualit}^,  size,  and 
price.  It  is  equally  likely  that  the  same  firm  would  be  willing, 
for  a  certain  consideration  in  price,  to  replace  the  stallion  when 
he  could  no  longer  be  used  in  that  particular  district.  If  such 
a  plan  were  followed  persistently,  each  district  so  acting  would 
secure  much  better  results  than  at  present. 


SELECTING    BREEDING    STOCK 

In  the  selection  of  breeding  stock,  we  must  keep  in  mind  the 
principle  of  heredity  that  "like  produces  like."  This  applies 
to  the  brood  mare  as  well  as  to  the  stallion.  Bad  qualities  in 
the  mare  are  as  likely  to  appear  in  the  colt  as  are  bad  qualities 
possessed  by  the  stallion.  The  influence  of  the  mare  in  the  trans- 
mission of  qualities  to  the  foal  is  often  very  much  underestimated, 
and  frequently  ignored  entirely  by  horse-breeders.  This  can- 
not be  other  than  a  serious  mistake,  and  the  farmer  who 
keeps  worthless  mares  for  breeding  simply  because  he  can- 
not sell  them,  will  not  be  able  to  compete  with  his  neighbor 
who  keeps  only  the  best  brood  mares,  even  though  they  both 
patronize  the  same  stallion.  The  mare  has  as  much  influence 
on  the  colt  as  has  the  stallion.  Once  in  a  while  we  may  get 
a  very  fine  colt  from  an  inferior  mare,  but  such  is  very  rarely 


100  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  case,  and  no  man  can  afford  to  breed  horses  for  this  excep- 
tional case. 

It  is  a  serious  but  common  error  in  breeding  horses  to  suppose 
that  the  bad  points  in  one  animal  can  be  fully  offset  or  overcome 
by  the  good  points  in  the  mate.  The  statement  that  the  stallion 
controls  the  outward  characters  and  the  mare  the  internal 
characters  has  led  many  breeders  to  think  that  the  offspring 
would  resemble  the  paternal  parent  irrespective  of  the  mother. 
Such  is  not  the  case.  The  foundation  of  successful  horse-breed- 
ing is  to  mate  two  animals  each  of  which  is  as  nearly  perfect  as 
possible. 

The  breed  and  type. —  Choose  the  breed  which  best  suits  the 
conditions,  the  markets,  and  the  tastes  of  the  breeders.  There 
is  no  best  breed  or  type  for  all  conditions.  Light  horses  naturally 
belong  on  land  devoted  to  grass,  to  dairy  industry,  and  to  market- 
gardening,  where  but  little  plowing  and  other  heavy  horse  work 
is  required,  and  the  necessity  of  reaching  the  market,  the  station, 
or  the  creamery  requires  quick-moving  horses. 

On  farms  devoted  to  fruit-growing  and  the  like,  where  the 
horse  work  is  somewhat  heavier  than  on  the  dairy  farm,  the 
coach  horse  may  be  used.  Coach  horses  are  well  adapted  to 
fruit  farms  with  one  exception  —  they  are  rather  too  tall  to  be 
used  to  best  advantage  in  tilling  under  trees  in  the  orchards. 

On  grain  farms,  where  there  is  much  plowing  and  the  work  to 
be  done  is  .hard,  heavy  horses  are  needed.  On  general  farms 
the  draft  horse  finds  his  true  place.  Draft  horses  can  be  reared 
with  less  risk  than  the  lighter  and  more  active  types,  such  as 
the  roadster  and  the  coachers.  They  do  not  require  so  much 
training,  and  can  be  put  to  light  work  younger.  The  draft  horse 
is  in  great  demand  for  city  traffic.  Again,  the  roadster  and  the 
coacher  require  much  training  before  they  can  be  marketed,  if 
good  values  are  to  be  secured.  This  training  requires  skill, 
time,  and  money,  which  should  be  taken  into  account.  A  well- 
bred  and  well-trained  coach  or  driving  team  will  bring  a  good 


THE  BREEDING   OF  HORSES 


101 


price,  but  the  skill,  time,  and  money  required  to  breed  and  train 
them  is  too  great  for  the  general  farmer. 

Uniformity.  —  Each  community  should  produce  horses  uni- 
form in  type.  As  it  is  now,  each  district  produces  a  number 
of  types.  For  this  reason,  buyers  in  search  of  a  particular  type 
or  breed  of  horse  do  not  know  where  to  find  it,  and  buy,  here  and 


Fig.  43.  —  Group  of  Percheron  Mares.     Imported  and  owned  by  J.  Crouch 

&  Son,  Lafayette,  Ind. 


there  throughout  a  wide  territory  and  at  a  great  outlay  for 
traveling  expenses,  individual  horses  of  the  right  type,  until 
the  lot  has  been  gathered  together.  When  each  farmer  in  a 
district  is  breeding  according  to  his  individual  ideas,  he  has  to 
find  a  separate  and  individual  market  or  buyer  for  his  product, 
and  the  price  paid  is  consequently  small.  Such  districts  may 
sell  large  numbers  of  horses  annually,  but  they  are  of  non- 
descript type  and  character.  These  horses  neither  make  a  name 
for  the  district  as  a  horse-breeding  center  nor  attract  buyers 
willing  to  pay  appreciative  prices.  The  individual  farmer  will  do 
better  to  cast  in  his  lot  with  the  majority  of  his  neighbors,  and 
breed  the  same  type  as  they  are  breeding,  even  though  this  type 


102  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

may  not  be  the  one  that  suits  his  fancy  best  or  even  the  one  that 
is  best  suited  to  the  district. 

Under  the  system  suggested,  the  buyer  of  any  particular  type 
or  breed  should  be  able  to  go  to  a  district  noted  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  class  of  animal  required  and  there  find  it  in  sufficient 
numbers,  uniform  in  type  and  quality,  to  meet  all  needs.  Could 
this  be  done,  buyers  would  save  much  time  and  expense  and 
would  be  ready  and  willing  to  pay  better  prices  for  the  full  supply 
of  horses  thus  easily  found. 

Soundness.  —  It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  stallion  should 
be  free  from  all  forms  of  unsoundness  or  disease  that  are  heredi- 
tary, transmissible,  or  communicable  to  the  offspring.  It  is 
equally  important  that  the  mares  bred  to  him  should  be  sound 
in  the  same  way,  for  not  until  both  mare  and  stallion  used  for 
breeding  purposes  are  free  from  unsoundness  can  we  hope  to 
raise  the  excellence  of  our  horses  to  the  degree  possible  as  the 
result  of  intelligent  breeding  and  development. 

Many  imported  and  home-bred  stallions  are  unsound  and 
transmit  to  their  progeny  the  predisposition  to  like  unsoundness. 
This  is  equally  true  of  mares  used  for  breeding  purposes,  as  many 
breeders  have  fallen  into  the  grievous  way  of  considering  any 
broken-down,  halt,  maimed,  blind,  or  otherwise  unsound  mare 
fit  for  breeding  purposes  when  no  longer  able  to  work. 

THE    STALLION 

The  stallion  is  of  prime  importance  in  horse-breeding.  We 
have  already  seen  that  the  male  is  concerned  with  many  more 
individual  offspring  in  a  given  season  than  the  female  and  that 
his  influence  is  much  more  extensive  because  of  the  increased 
number  he  influences.  To  secure  the  improvement  in  the  horses 
of  a  given  community  through  the  females  would  require  the 
use  of  fifty  or  more  superior  mares  to  accomplish  the  same  result 
as  might  be  secured  by  the  use  of  a  single  stallion,  and  even  then 
there  would  be  less  uniformity  in  the  progeny.     This  has  no 


THE  BREEDING   OF  HORSES  103 

reference  to  the  relative  influence  of  the  two  parents  over  the 
offspring,  but  is  simply  because  the  stallion  controls  one-half 
the  characters  in  the  entire  crop,  whereas  the  mare  controls  but 
one.  Often  one  has  no  choice  of  stallions  when  mating  the  mares 
because  there  is  but  one  male  in  the  vicinity,  and  this  no  doubt 
is  responsible  for  much  of  the  mixed  breeding  among  our  horse 
stock.  On  the  other  hand,  usually  there  are  several  stallions 
available,  and  one  must  choose  among  them.  While  there  are 
many  things  to  be  taken  into  account,  the  following  are  among 
the  most  important :  individuality,  type,  soundness,  and 
breeding. 

THE    MARE 

The  most  fertile  period  in  the  mare's  life  is  usually  at  four  to 
twelve  years  of  age.  In  exceptional  cases,  this  period  may  be 
extended  both  ways.  Just  how  young  it  is  safe  to  breed  fillies 
or  young  mares  is  a  question  concerning  which  there  is  great 
difference  of  opinion.  In  some  cases  it  is  perfectly  safe  to 
breed  a  two-year-old  filly,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  far  from  safe 
and  positively  detrimental  to  both  the  young  mare  and  her 
offspring. 

The  advisability  of  breeding  a  two-year-old  filly  depends  on 
at  least  three  important  factors:  First,  the  breed.  Horses 
of  draft  breeding  mature  much  earlier  than  the  lighter  and 
more  active  breeds,  so  that  a  draft  filly  at  two  years  old  is 
often  as  forward  as  a  trotting  or  running  filly  at  three  years 
of  age.  Second,  the  individual  animal.  There  is  consider- 
able difference  in  the  way  mares  mature.  Usually  a  smoothly 
turned,  neat,  and  well-finished  filly  makes  its  growth  earlier 
than  a  rougher,  more  vigorous  individual.  Again,  the  feed 
and  care  have  much  to  do  with  the  early  maturity  of  the  filly. 
One  that  is  kept  growing  continuously  will  mature  earlier  than 
one  imperfectly  cared  for  and  which  receives  a  set  back  each 
winter.     Third,  the  object  sought.     Is  the  question  to  improve 


104  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  strain  of  horses  with  which  one  is  breeding,  or  only  to 
market  the  greatest  possible  number  of  animals  ?  If  the  ob- 
ject is  to  improve  the  strain,  one  should  never  attempt  to  breed 
a  two-year-old  filly. 

The  practice  in  certain  draft-horse  producing  countries,  Great 
Britain  for  example,  is  to  breed  the  draft  fillies  the  spring  they 
are  two  years  old  and  allow  them  no  work  whatever  that  season. 
After  weaning  their  foals,  they  are  taken  as  three-year-olds  and 
put  to  work,  and  not  bred  again  until  they  are  four  years  old. 
This  system  is  worthy  of  adoption  when  one  wishes  to  know 
the  breeding  qualities  of  his  mare  as  early  as  possible;  otherwise 
there  is  no  advantage,  as  one  will  secure  just  as  many  colts  if  he 
waits  till  the  mare  is  three  years  old  and  then  breeds  her. 

When  draft  horses  are  wanted  only  for  marketing,  there  is 
no  reason  why  fillies  cannot  be  bred  at  two  years  of  age,  provided 
they  are  mature,  have  been  well  grown,  and  their  owner  is 
willing  to  feed  and  care  for  them  properly  during  their  pregnancy. 
Nor  is  there  any  reason  why  they  should  not  be  bred  each  year 
thereafter.  They  should  not,  however,  be  put  to  work  till  over 
three  years  of  age. 

At  about  twelve  years,  the  productive  powers  of  some  draft 
mares  will  begin  to  wane,  although  many  of  them  are  reliable 
breeders  to  about  fifteen  years,  especially  if  they  have  been  bred 
continuously  from  their  maturity.  Above  this  age,  it  is  rarely 
profitable  to  keep  them  for  breeding.  Perhaps  it  is  best  to 
dispose  of  draft  brood  mares  at  ten  or  twelve  years  old  unless 
they  are  exceptionally  good  breeders,  in  which  case  they  should 
be  kept  as  long  as  they  will  breed. 

Season  of  the  year  to  breed.  —  The  natural  time  for  foals  to 
arrive  is  in  the  spring,  and  under  ordinary  conditions,  especially 
on  breeding  farms,  this  is  customary.  However,  on  most  farms 
the  mare  must  do  the  season's  work  in  addition  to  raising  the  colt. 
This  often  necessitates  breeding  the  mares  so  as  to  have  the 
colts  arrive  in  the  fall.     With  good  stables,  abundance  of  food, 


THE  BREEDING   OF  HORSES 


105 


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106  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  the  necessary  help,  there  is  no  reason  why  mares  should  not 
be  made  to  foal  in  the  fall  if  it  is  more  convenient  to  have  them 
do  so.  In  fact,  if  one  is  forced  to  choose  between  a  spring  foal 
with  no  chance  properly  to  favor  the  mare  and  a  fall  foal  which 
arrives  and  is  suckled  while  the  mare  is  laid  by,  the  latter  would 
be  more  desirable.  During  winter,  however,  both  mare  and 
foal  will  require  more  attention  than  if  bred  to  foal  in  the  spring. 


Fig.   45.  —  A  Cross-bred  Coach  and  American   Trotting   Horse.     A  type 

used  by  the  New  York  police. 

By  fall  foaling,  the  youngsters  can  be  given  a  good  start  before 
they  are  set  back  by  the  short  pastures  and  flies  of  midsummer. 
The  mare  is  not  so  likely  to  breed  in  the  fall  and  winter  as  in 
the  spring.  She  is  often  thin  in  flesh  after  the  summer's  work. 
But  by  increasing  the  food,  especially  the  grain  rations,  by 
regular  and  moderate  exercise,  and  by  blanketing,  the  desired 
results  can  often  be  brought  about.  The  bowels  should  be 
kept  free  from  constipation  by  feeding  moderate  amounts  of 
succulent  foods. 


THE  BBEEDING   OF  HOUSES  107 

Breeders  of  race  and  show  horses  take  every  advantage  of  the 
age  limit,  and  therefore  favor  early  foaling.  There  are  also  un- 
questionable benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  life  in  the  open,  and 
the  new  grass,  to  commend  springtime  for  foaling,  but  the 
prejudice  against  fall  colts  is  not  altogether  warranted,  and  cir- 
cumstances may  be  such  as  to  make  it  most  advantageous. 

According  to  the  table  (p.  108),  a  mare  bred  on  January  1 
should  foal  on  December  6 ;  one  bred  on  March  27  should  foal 
on  March  1  the  following  year. 

When  mares  should  be  tried.  —  There  is  great  diversity  of 
opinion  as  to  when  and  how  often  a  mare  should  be  tried  after 
she  has  been  served  by  the  stallion.  It  can  be  accepted  as  a 
general  rule  that  if  the  mare  is  perfectly  normal  and  healthy, 
she  will  conceive.  If  she  is  not  normal  or  is  unhealthy,  she 
either  will  not  conceive  at  all  or  only  occasionally  at  best,  and 
even  then  there  is  likely  to  be  difficult}-.  We  should  see  to  it 
that  her  organs  are  perfectly  normal  and  that  she  is  in  good 
health.  We  should  not  change  her  diet  or  her  mode  of  life  so 
suddenly  as  to  upset  her  general  health. 

Some  mares  are  shy  breeders.  If  a  mare  is  unwilling  and  it 
is  desired  to  breed  her,  she  can  occasionally  be  brought  about 
by  hobbling  her  securely  and  then  breeding  her.  Then  she 
will  behave  more  or  less  peaceably  for  eighteen  to  twenty-one 
days,  when  she  may  be  bred  again.  There  are  other  mares,  and 
they  are  numerous,  that  will  freely  be  served  when  they  are  in 
foal,  in  some  cases  almost  up  to  the  time  of  foaling. 

A  mare  will  almost  invariably  breed  on  the  ninth  day,  or 
thereabouts,  after  foaling,  and  if  she  is  healthy  and  has  received 
no  injuries  in  giving  birth,  it  is  the  practice  to  breed  her  at  this 
time.  Just  when  mares  should  be  returned  to  see  whether 
they  have  conceived  is  a  much  discussed  question.  Mares  differ 
greatly  in  the  recurrence  of  their  periods.  It  is  best  for  each 
breeder  to  study  the  individual  differences  among  his  mares. 
The  common  practice  is  to  return  them  fourteen  to  eighteen 


108 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Table  showing  period  of  gestation  —  Mares  340  days 
Date  of  service  on  the  left.      Date  of  foaling  on  the  right 


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5 

THE  BREEDING    OF  HORSES 


109 


days  after  the  first  service,  and  to  return  them  each  week  there- 
after for  at  least  one  month. 

Barrenness  in  mares.  —  It  often  happens  that  mares  are 
served  normally,  yet  fail  to  conceive.  Some  of  the  causes  of  this 
difficulty  are  readily 
understood  and  eas- 
ily prevented,  while 
others  are  not  so 
well  known  and  are 
perhaps  beyond  the 
control  of  breeders. 
Mares  that  are  not 
served  till  late  in 
life  are  often  diffi- 
cult to  impregnate 
at  the  first  time. 
This  is  often  noticed 
in  mares  that  have 
spent  a  good  part  of 
a  lifetime  at  hard 
work.  In  such  cases 
it  is  due  perhaps  to 
the  long  inactivity 
of  the  generative  organs.  An  excess  of  rich  and  stimulating  foods 
is  a  common  cause  of  non-breeding;  and  the  dangers  attend- 
ing parturition  are  more  than  trebled  in  the  case  of  fat  animals. 
Milk-fever  never  occurs  in  mares  that  are  kept  actually  at  work 
and  are  in  only  moderate  flesh  at  the  time  of  foaling.  On  the 
other  hand,  barrenness  may  be  due  to  poor  feeding  and  hard 
work,  the  system  being  weakened  by  the  lack  of  sufficient 
nutrition.  Undue  sexual  excitement  at  the  most  active  stage 
of  heat  is  often  responsible  for  the  mare  not  conceiving.  In 
addition  to  these,  there  is  a  long  line  of  causes  of  barrenness  in 
mares  over  which  the  breeder  has  little  or  no  control,  such  as 


Fig.  46.  —  Arab  Horse  used  as  a  Polo  Pont. 


110  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

derangement  of  the  female  organs,  diseased  ovaries,  tumors,  and 
the  like. 

Abortion  in  mares.  —  Abortion  is  the  expulsion  of  the  fetus 
at  any  period  from  the  date  of  impregnation  until  the  foal  can 
survive  out  of  the  womb.  It  is  produced  by  any  cause  operating 
to  disconnect  the  union  of  the  fetal  membrane  from  the  uterus. 
The  mare  may  abort  by  reason  of  almost  any  cause  that  very 
generally  disturbs  her  system,  as  the  influence  of  too  stimulating 
diet  or  the  reverse,  wet  seasons,  a  previous  miscarriage,  and 
all  circumstances  opposed  to  efficient  nutrition  and  respiration. 
The  more  direct  mechanical  causes  are  falls,  blows,  violent 
exertion,  severe  illness,  large  draughts  of  cold  water  or  eating 
iced  grass,  ergot  of  rye,  the  smut  of  corn  or  other  grain,  and 
drinking  filthy  stagnant  water ;  also,  traveling  on  heavy  muddy 
roads,  soft  plowed  ground,  or  jumping  over  fences,  ditches,  and 
the  like. 

The  prevention  of  abortion  is  the  avoidance  of  all  causes  which 
may  have  a  tendency  to  produce  it.  When  abortion  has  once 
occurred,  the  greatest  care  in  subsequent  management  is  neces- 
sary. The  breeder  must  avoid  all  causes  of  constipation, 
diarrhea,  indigestion,  and  the  like.  When  all  measures  fail  and 
miscarriage  results,  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  assist  in  the  removal 
of  the  fetus  and  its  membranes  as  in  ordinary  parturitions. 
The  mare  should  have  extra  care  at  this  time.  She  should  have 
a  roomy,  well-lighted  stall,  with  plenty  of  air  and  easily  digested 
food.  The  mare  should  not  be  served  again  for  a  month  or 
longer,  and  in  no  case  till  after  all  discharges  from  the  vulva 
have  ceased. 

Parturition  time.  —  The  average  period  of  gestation  in  the 
mare  is  popularly  placed  at  eleven  months,  more  accurately 
perhaps  three  hundred  and  forty  days,  but  it  may  vary  greatly. 
(See  page  108.)  Because  of  the  uncertainty  of  the  period,  the  mare 
should  be  closely  watched  from  the  tenth  month  till  parturition. 
There  are  certain  signs  of  the  near  approach  of  parturition  that 


THE  BREEDING    OF  HORSES 


111 


rarely  fail.  The  udder  often  becomes  greatly  distended  some 
time  before  foaling,  but  the  teats  seldom  fill  out  full  and  plump 
to  the  end  more  than  two  or  three  days  before  the  foal  is  born. 
About  one  week  or  ten  days  before  foaling,  there  is  a  marked 
shrinking  or  falling  away  of  the  muscular  parts  at  the  top  of  the 
buttocks  back  of  the  hips.  Another  sign  is  the  appearance  of 
the  wax  on  the  ends  of  the  teats.  This  generally  appears  not 
earlier  than  three  days  before  the  foal  comes.  In  some  cases, 
however,  the  foal  may  be  born  without  any  of  these  signs. 


Fig.   47.  —  A    Farm    Group    of    French    Draft    Horses.      This  breed  was 
developed  in  France  and  is  similar  to  the  Percheron. 


About  the  three  hundred  and  thirtieth  day,  or  when  the  mare 
begins  to  show  signs,  the  work  should  be  much  lightened  and 
the  grain  ration  reduced,  although  for  best  results  the  mare 
should  be  kept  at  light  work  up  to  the  day  of  foaling.  Bran 
mash  will  prove  very  beneficial  now,  as  it  will  keep  the  bowels 
in  good  condition  and  allay  any  tendency  to  feverishness.  She 
should  have  a  roomy,  well-lighted,  and  ventilated  box  stall, 
thoroughly  clean  and  freshly  bedded. 

If  birth  is  easy  and  normal,  let  both  mare  and  foal  alone. 
They  will  come  through  the  ordeal  all  right.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary that  a  caretaker  be  near  by  at  night  to  render  assistance  if 


112  MANUAL    OF  FABM  ANIMALS 

need  be,  but  the  mare  must  not  know  of  his  presence.  Most 
mares  will  not  give  birth  to  their  young  in  the  presence  of  per- 
sons if  they  can  help  it. 

If  the  mare  shows  after  a  reasonable  time  that  she  cannot  de- 
liver the  foal,  or  if  examination  discloses  that  there  is  an  ab- 
normal presentation  (normally  the  fore  feet  appear  first,  then 
the  nose),  a  veterinarian  should  be  summoned  at  once.  Do 
not  wait  too  long,  for  her  strength  rapidly  fails.  Difficult  par- 
turition among  horses  is  much  more  likely  to  result  fatally 
to  the  offspring  than  among  cattle,  sheep,  or  swine. 

The  mare  and  the  young  foal.  —  After  foaling,  if  all  is  normal, 
the  mare  will  usually  get  up  and  tend  to  her  foal.  After  she  is 
on  her  feet,  offer  her  a  drink  of  gruel  made  from  a  pound  of  fine 
oat  meal  in  half  a  bucket  of  water  from  which  the  chill  has  been 
taken.  While  the  mare  should  be  lightly  worked  up  to  the  day 
of  foaling,  it  is  essential  that  she  have  a  few  days'  rest  after  foal- 
ing; how  long  will  depend  on  the  condition  of  the  mare  and 
foal,  and  the  financial  circumstances  of  the  breeder.  Strong 
mares  that  have  come  through  satisfactorily  will  be  able  to 
do  light  work  in  three  or  four  days  if  need  be,  whereas  others 
will  need  at  least  two  weeks  to  recover  from  the  shock. 

Two  things  require  attention  at  this  time  so  far  as  the  mare 
is  concerned :  she  must  be  properly  nourished,  not  fed  too 
much  or  too  little  and  with  the  right  sort  of  food ;  if  able, 
she  must  have  light  exercise  or  the  foal  will  suffer. 

The  foods  given  the  brood  mare  when  nursing  her  foal  should 
be  such  as  have  a  tendency  to  produce  milk.  Corn  and  timothy 
hay  fed  alone  are  not  good  milk-producing  foods.  Foods  rich 
in  protein  and  ash,  such  as  oats,  bran,  clover,  and  alfalfa  hay, 
are  preferred,  and  they  could  be  improved  by  the  addition 
of  a  succulent  food  such  as  carrots.  Many  mares  are  poor 
milk-producers  at  best,  and  they  must  be  encouraged.  Plenty 
of  good  fresh  grass  is  one  of  the  best  aids  to  healthy  and  abun- 
dant nutrition  for  both  mare  and  foal. 


THE  BREEDING   OF  HORSES  113 

One  should  keep  close  watch  on  the  mare's  udder  and  the 
condition  of  the  colt's  bowels.  If  the  colt  is  not  taking  all  the 
milk,  the  udder  will  be  greatly  distended,  become  sore,  and 
possibly  cake,  when  there  will  be  difficulty  with  both  mare  and 
foal.  It  is  then  necessary  to  milk  the  mare.  If  the  bowels  of 
the  colt  are  loose  and  he  is  scouring,  it  may  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  he  is  getting  too  much  milk.  In  that  case,  the  mare 
should  be  partly  milked  by  hand.- 

THE    FOAL 

It  is  essential  that  the  new-born  foal  get  the  first  milk  from 
the  dam.  This  fore-milk  looks  thick  and  yellow  and  is  a  natural 
purgative  for  the  removal  of  the  material  that  has  accumulated 
in  the  foal's  digestive  tract  during  the  last  few  days  of  its  de- 
velopment. Its  prompt  removal  is  essential  to  the  life  of  the 
colt.  Sometimes  this  fore-milk,  or  colostrum,  is  drawn  off  as 
unfit  for  the  colt,  but  such  practice  is  a  common  cause  of  death 
to  the  foal  two  or  three  days  after  birth. 

The  young  foal  that  makes  its  appearance  normally  and  is 
bright  and  active  needs  only  to  be  let  alone  as  long  as  both  mare 
and  foal  are  doing  well.  The  infant  foal  will  be  better  for  it. 
By  giving  proper  attention  to  the  food  and  exercise  of  the  mare, 
the  foal  may  be  kept  thriving  and  in  the  pink  of  condition  with- 
out any  special  care  or  attention.  Not  all  foals,  however,  are 
so  fortunate.  Occasionally  one  loses  its  life  through  want  of 
attention  at  the  time  of  birth.  Occasionally  foals  are  troubled 
with  digestive  disorders  that  must  be  attended  to  and  remedied 
at  once  before  they  prove  fatal.  Again,  they  are  sometimes 
troubled  with  an  infectious  navel  disease  which  may  be  due  to 
unsanitary  conditions  at  the  time  of  foaling. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  new-born  foal  cannot  breathe 
—  does  not  establish  the  function  of  respiration.  In  this  case, 
steps  must  be  taken  quickly  to  establish  respiration  by  blowing 
violently  up  the  muzzle  and  into  the  mouth,  and  by  briskly 


114 


MANUAL    OF  FAEM  ANIMALS 


rubbing  the  body.  If  breathing  is  slow,  a  few  tablespoonfuls 
of  brandy  and  water,  given  after  the  first  few  respirations,  will 
be  of  material  service  in  invigorating  the  low  vital  process. 

As  soon  as  the  mare  has  recovered  from  the  shock  of  giving 
birth,  she  should  be  allowed  to  tend  the  foal,  for  it  will  be  phys- 


Fig.  48.  —  Hackney  Coach   Mare,  and  Foal  Three  Weeks  Old. 
by  A.  R.  Gillis,  Syracuse,  N.Y. 


Owned 


ically  benefited  thereby.  If  she  refuses  to  dry  and  caress  it, 
a  little  flour  sprinkled  over  the  back  of  the  foal  will  often  attract 
her  to  it.  Should  she  still  refuse,  the  foal  must  be  dried  with  a 
soft  flannel,  aided  to  find  the  teat,  and  assisted  to  obtain  its 
first  nourishment. 


THE  BREEDING    OF  HORSES  115 

Ills  of  the  young  foal.  Constipation.  —  Notwithstanding  the 
purgative  effects  of  the  colostrum  or  first  flow  of  milk,  the 
young  foal  frequently  suffers  from  constipation,  especially  if 
the  mare  has  not  been  in  good  health  during  the  latter  periods 
of  pregnancy.  Then  again,  the  dam  may  have  something 
wrong  with  her  first  milk,  or  the  young  foal  through  weakness 
may  not  get  a  good  draft.  Whatever  the  cause,  if  the  digestive 
tract  has  not  been  cleaned  of  its  contents  within  twenty-four 
hours  and  the  foal  presents  a  droopy,  listless  appearance,  eyes 
not  bright,  ears  lopped  over,  something  must  be  done  to  stimu- 
late the  action  of  the  bowels.  The  bowels  will  ordinarily  be 
stimulated  actively  by  administering  two  ounces  of  olive  oil 
or  castor  oil  and  an  injection  of  warm  water  into  the  bowels. 
The  water  should  be  at  blood  heat  and  have  added  to  it  a  little 
glycerine  —  a  teaspoonful  of  glycerine  and  enough  warm  water 
to  make  two  or  three  ounces,  not  more.  Never  try  to  fill  the 
little  foal  with  copious  douches  of  soap-suds,  as  is  often  done. 
Plain  cold  water  is  better  than  soap-suds.  Only  a  very  little 
is  needed.  Inject  gently  into  the  rectum  with  a  common  two- 
ounce  hard  rubber  syringe,  taking  care  not  to  rupture  the  tender 
membrane.  This  will  lubricate  the  passage  and  induce  the  foal 
to  endeavor  to  pass  the  fecal  matter,  which  is  a  yellowish,  rather 
hard,  waxy  substance.  If  given  as  directed,  the  injection  can 
do  no  harm,  and  it  may  be  repeated  every  hour.  In  five 
hours,  relief  will  usually  have  been  gained  and  the  appearance 
of  the  youngster  will  have  changed  greatly  for  the  better. 

Diarrhea  or  scours.  —  This  disease  is  rather  prevalent  among 
suckling  animals,  and  is  often  fatal.  Although  less  subject  to 
it  than  calves,  foals  often  die  from  diarrhea  within  a  short 
time  after  birth.  The  causes  are  not  certainly  known.  It  is 
ordinarily  attributed  to  changes  of  an  unknown  character  in  the 
composition  of  the  milk.  Two  facts,  however,  have  been  proved : 
First,  that  the  causes  of  scours  are  many  and  varied ;  second, 
that  their  potency  is  increased  by  unclean  surroundings,  espe- 


116  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

cially  unwholesome  stables.  Apparent  causes  are  the  non- 
removal  of  the  fecal  matter;  also  anything  that  very  materially 
affects  the  health  or  condition  of  the  mare,  such  as  becoming 
fretful  when  kept  away  from  the  colt  for  a  time  soon  after  partu- 
rition. The  mare  becomes  feverish,  the  quality  of  her  milk 
materially  altered,  and  the  foal  coming  to  her  hungry,  gorges 
itself  with  this  changed  milk  which  induces  indigestion  and 
diarrhea.  Very  rich  foods  may  stimulate  the  flow  to  such  an 
extent  that  if  the  foal  is  permitted  to  take  it  all,  digestive  dis- 
orders and  diarrhea  will  result.  The  same  often  happens  in 
early  spring  when  the  mare  is  pasturing  on  a  rank  growth  of 
succulent  grass.  Confinement  in  close  buildings  is  objectionable 
to  mare  and  foal  alike.  In  both  it  induces  a  weakened  condition, 
and  leaves  the  system  an  easy  prey  to  disease.  A' cold  damp 
bed,  exposure  to  cold  rain  storms,  and  the  like  are  to  be  avoided. 
A  passing  shower  may  do  no  harm,  even  if  cold,  but  a  prolonged 
exposure  to  rain  with  a  low  temperature  is  hard  on  a  new-born 
foal  and  often  leads  to  disorders  of  the  digestive  organs  and  fatal 
diarrhea. 

The  best  treatment  is  to  avoid  conditions  likely  to  cause  such 
disorders.  If  the  dam  is  properly  fed  and  exercised,  there  is 
very  little  danger.  One  should  attend  the  foal  at  the  first 
appearance  of  digestive  disorders  and  remove  the  cause;  even 
then  it  may  be  too  late.  If  it  is  due  to  an  oversupply  of  rich 
milk,  the  dam  should  be  milked  in  part  by  hand.  One  should 
be  cautioned  against  giving  an  astringent  with  a  view  to  cutting 
off  the  discharge.  The  best  policy  in  all  such  cases  is  to  expel 
the  disturber  with  a  laxative,  such  as  two  ounces  of  castor  oil, 
and  later  when  the  irritant  has  been  expelled,  to  check  the  dis- 
charge by  a  weak  solution  of  gum  arabic,  of  slippery  elm,  or  by 
well-boiled  linseed  tea  or  starch,  or  the  like.  But  even  this  road 
is  beset  by  many  a  difficulty. 

Navel  infection. —  Another  disease  common  to  young  foals 
is  the  so-called  navel  infection,  or  joint  disease.     It  should  be 


THE  BREEDING   OF  HORSES 


117 


understood  that  this  disease  is  due  to  filth  germs  that  gain  access 
to  the  body  of  the  foal  by  way  of  the  open  umbilical  vein  of  the 
navel  at  birth.  When  these  germs  enter,  they  set  up  irritation 
and  inflammation ;  pus  forms  and  is  absorbed  into  the  circula- 
tion from  the  navel  abscess,  and  other  abscesses  are  formed 
in  all  parts  of  the  body,  notably  in  the  joints.  The  foal  is 
seen  to  have  a  swollen  joint  and  one  is  likely  to  think  the  mare 
caused  the  injury;  but  soon  other  joints  will  be  affected,  and  it 
may  extend  to  the  throat  and  poll.  It  is  comparatively  rare 
that  an  infected  colt  can  be  saved  after  the  disease  has  reached 
the  pus-forming  stage. 


Fig.  49.  —  Bressary 


OF     PlTTSFORD.       ABERDEEN    OF     PlTTSFORD. 

Shetland  team  of  stallions. 


Unbeaten 


The  Shetland  Pony,  a  native  of  the  Shetland  Islands,  is  the  smallest  breed  of 
domesticated  ponies.  In  height  they  range  from  36  to  44  inches.  They 
are  built  like  miniature  draft  horses,  being  thick-set  and  strong,  and 
so  very  docile  as  to  require  hardly  any  training.  These  ponies  are  com- 
mon in  the  United  States,  where  they  are  used  for  children  to  drive. 


It  has  been  proved  that  simple  hygienic  measures  will  prevent 
the  disease.  The  stall  in  which  the  mare  foals  should  have 
every  bit  of  old  bedding,  litter,  and  dirt  removed,  and  the  young 
foal  should  be  born  only  on  clean  fresh  bedding.  Perhaps  it 
would  be  safer  to  wash  the  stump  of  the  umbilical  cord,  which 


118  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

should  never  be  cut  but  allowed  to  break  of  its  own  accord,  with 
a  saturated  solution  of  boracic  acid  and  then  dust  it  with  boracic 
acid  powder. 

Feeding  the  young  foal.  —  It  often  happens  that  the  milk  of 
the  mare  is  insufficient  to  promote  healthy,  vigorous  growth  in 
the  foal,  and  occasionally  it  becomes  necessary  to  raise  a  foal 
entirely  independent  of  the  dam.  In  such  cases  the  best  addi- 
tion or  substitute  for  the  milk  of  the  mare  is  that  of  the  cow. 
The  milk  of  the  mare  has  more  sugar  and  less  fat  than  the  milk 
of  the  cow.  One  should  get  milk  from  as  fresh  a  cow  as  possible, 
and  the  poorer  in  fat  the  better,  as  mare's  milk  will  average  only 
about  1.2  per  cent  fat,  while  the  milk  of  most  cows  runs  above 
3  per  cent.  Do  not  use  Jersej^  milk  for  colts,  as  it  is  too  rich  in 
fat, 

A  little  patient  effort  will  soon  teach  the  colt  to  drink  milk 
readily,  but  one  must  be  careful  not  to  give  it  too  much  at  first. 
A  half  pint  is  enough  for  a  foal  two  or  three  days  old,  but  the 
ration  should  be  repeated  often.  If  it  is  necessary  to  feed  the 
foal  cow's  milk  from  the  beginning,  the  milk  should  be  modified. 
To  a  dessert-spoonful  of  white  granulated  sugar  add  enough 
warm  water  to  dissolve  it.  Then  add  three  tablespoonfuls  of  lime 
water  and  enough  milk  to  make  a  pint.  Warm  the  mixture  to 
blood  heat.  Let  the  foal  have  a  half  teacupful  every  hour  at 
first.  This  takes  time,  but  must  be  done.  If  the  colt  scours, 
give  a  dose  of  two  ounces  of  castor  oil  and  discontinue  the  feed 
for  two  hours.  As  the  colt  grows  older,  the  amount  of  food 
should  be  increased  and  the  frequency  of  feeding  decreased, 
first  to  twelve,  then  to  nine,  six,  and  lastly  four  times  a  day. 
The  purpose  is  to  give  the  foal  all  it  will  drink,  and  to  feed  so 
often  that  it  will  not  require  much  at  a  time. 

Gruels,  made  by  boiling  beans  or  peas  and  removing  the  skins 
by  pressing  the  pulp  through  a  sieve,  or  oil  meal  and  shorts 
made  into  a  jelly  by  boiling,  are  excellent  for  the  motherless 
colt. 


THE   BREEDING   OF  HORSES  119 

As  soon  as  the  foal  is  old  enough,  it  should  be  encouraged  to 
nibble  at  grain,  preferably  ground  oats.  It  will  begin  to  munch 
in  the  grain  and  hay  at  three  or  four  weeks  of  age,  and  should  be 
encouraged  to  eat.  It  will  eat  only  a  very  little  at  first.  If  it 
is  necessary  that  the  foal  have  milk  after  it  is  two  months  old, 
skimmed  milk  should  be  substituted  for  fresh  cow's  milk. 
Never  feed  a  colt  sour  milk.  Never  feed  milk  from  unclean 
vessels.  Should  there  be  any  trouble  from  constipation,  it 
will  be  well  to  add  about  one-half  pint  of  oil  meal  per  day  to  the 
ration.  Oil  meal  can  be  fed  with  profit  to  growing  colts,  as  it 
furnishes  a  large  proportion  of  muscle-forming  and  bone-form- 
ing food.  The  effect  of  such  a  ration  —  sweet  skimmed  milk, 
ground  oats,  and  oil  meal  —  on  the  growth  and  development 
of  a  foal  is  remarkable,  and  in  all  cases  when  the  foal  is  likely 
to  enter  winter  in  low  flesh  such  a  ration  cannot  be  too  highly 
recommended. 

Many  breeders  advise  leaving  the  colt  in  the  stable  while  the 
mare  is  at  work ;  others  allow  the  colt  to  follow  the  mare  into 
the  field.  Much  depends  on  the  kind  of  work  that  is  to  be  done. 
Never  let  a  colt  drink  from  a  warm  mare  ;  allow  her  to  cool  off 
and  perhaps  draw  some  of  the  milk  by  hand,  when  she  may  be 
turned  into  the  stall  with  the  foal  with  perfect  safety  to  both 
mare  and  foal. 

Weaning  the  foal.  —  Weaning  is  more  a  question  of  prepara- 
tion than  of  the  absolute  removal  of  the  foal  from  the  dam;  and 
the  simplicity  of  the  weaning  process  depends  on  the  thorough- 
ness of  the  preparation.  If  the  foal  has  been  accustomed  to 
grain  as  suggested,  if  it  has  been  permitted  to  take  increasingly 
more  as  it  grew,  then  the  process  will  not  be  difficult,  for  as  the 
ration  increases  in  amount  of  grain  it  will  decrease  in  the  amount 
of  milk  consumed.  When  the  time  arrives  for  complete  separa- 
tion, there  will  be  very  little  if  any  set  back  or  disturbance  to 
either  foal  or  dam.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  foal  must  learn  to 
eat  after  being  deprived  of  its  accustomed  source  of  supply,  it 


120  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

will  require  time  to  get  used  to  the  new  condition,  and  the 
mare  will  demand  special  care  because  of  the  removal  of 
the  colt  before  her  milk  supply  has  been  diminished  to  any 
extent. 

Foals  are  usually  weaned  at  four  to  six  months  of  age,  depend- 
ing on  conditions.  If  the  mare  was  bred  soon  after  foaling  and 
conceived,  it  is  best  to  wean  the  foal  early,  so  that  the  mare  will 
have  time  to  recuperate  and  nourish  the  fetus.  If  for  any 
reason  mare  and  foal  are  not  doing  well,  it  is  perhaps  best  to 
wean  comparatively  early.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  mare  has 
a  full  flow  of  milk  and  her  services  are  not  needed,  there  is  no 
reason  for  weaning  the  foal  under  six  months  of  age.  When 
dam  and  foal  are  separated,  it  is  better  for  both  that  the  separa- 
tion be  complete.  If,  after  both  have  become  reconciled  to  the 
separation,  they  are  permitted  to  see,  hear,  or  smell  each  other 
again,  all  that  has  been  gained  is  lost,  and  it  will  be  necessary 
to  begin  over  again.  Care  should  also  be  taken  to  see  that 
the  new  quarters  where  the  weanlings  are  confined  are  so  con- 
structed and  arranged  that  they  cannot  injure  themselves 
while  fretting  over  the  separation. 

At  this  time  the  food  and  the  udder  of  the  mare  require  extra 
attention.  Work  the  mare  right  along  if  she  has  been  at  work, 
but  reduce  her  grain  ration  till  she  is  dried  off.  When  the  udder 
becomes  so  full  as  to  cause  her  uneasiness,  part  of  the  milk 
should  be  drawn,  but  she  should  not  be  milked  dry.  If  the  milk 
is  all  withdrawn  each  time,  it  will  take  longer  to  dry  her. 

Skimmed  milk  may  still  be  given  to  the  colt,  especially  if  it 
is  not  in  good  condition  to  enter  the  winter.  Clean,  sound  oats 
well  ground  constitute  the  best  of  all  grains  for  the  weanling. 
As  cold  weather  approaches,  one-fourth  in  weight  of  corn  meal 
maybe  added,  as  it  helps  to  produce  fat  and  keeps  up  the  animal 
heat.  If  to  this  a  little  oil  meal,  say  a  half  pint  a  day,  is  added, 
the  weanling  will  make  good  gains  in  spite  of  the  cold  weather 
and  the  fact  that  it  has  just  been  separated  from  its  mother. 


THE  BREEDING    OF  HORSES  121 

Do  not  be  afraid  of  feeding  too  liberally.  Many  colts  are  per- 
manently injured  the  first  six  months  after  weaning  by  too 
scanty  supply  of  food. 

BREEDING   JACKS,    JENNETS,   AND   MULES 

Because  of  the  increasing  importance  of  the  mule,  it  seems 
desirable  to  point  out  some  of  the  peculiarities  connected  with 
its  breeding.  In  general,  the  same  suggestions  apply  to  horses, 
jacks,  jennets,  and  mules,  yet  there  are  a  few  characteristic 
differences. 

Jacks  and  jennets.  —  In  selecting  breeding  stock,  choose  those 
with  long,  thin,  bony  head  and  long,  well-tapering  ears,  sitting 
gracefully  on  the  head,  and  with  large,  flat,  clean  limbs,  big  feet 
deeply  cupped.  As  to  color,  it  should  be  a  good  black  with  dis- 
tinctly light  points.  Breadth  in  hips  and  pelvis  is  very  essential, 
particularly  in  jennet.  Many  jennets  are  so  deficient  or  narrow  in 
the  pelvis  that  they  have  great  difficulty  in  giving  birth  to  their 
offspring.  In  size  they  should  be  large  and  well  proportioned. 
The  action  should  be  snappy  and  straight  away.  Perhaps  the 
most  important  characters  are  color,  size,  action,  and  boniness. 

The  jennet  carries  her  foal  somewhat  longer  than  the  mare, 
perhaps  well  up  to  twelve  months.  At  foaling  time  the  jennet 
must  be  closely  watched.  This  is  essential.  When  the  colt  is 
born,  it  sometimes  has  the  membrane  over  its  head  and  nostrils ; 
if  this  is  not  torn  and  removed,  it  will  smother  the  young  foal. 
Usually,  the  navel  cord  is  tough  and  does  not  give  way  or 
break.  If  it  is  pulsating  after  the  colt  is  born,  it  should  be  tied 
with  a  silk  or  flax  thread  and  then  cut  three  or  four  inches  from 
the  navel.  Never  cut  the  navel  before  tieing.  Jack  colts  are 
liable  to  have  trouble  with  the  navel ;  hence  the  importance  of 
being  on  hand  when  the  colt  is  foaled.  Again,  foaling  jennets  are 
often  troubled  with  sore,  tender,  and  inflamed  udders,  due  to 
the  large  amount  of  milk  they  contain.  When  such  is  the  case, 
they  will  not  allow  the  colt  to  suck,  but  kick  and  bite  it,  and 


THE  BREEDING    OF  HORSES  123 

it  will  starve  if  not  looked  after  properly.  The  jennet  must 
be  carefully  milked  and  the  udder  bathed  in  warm  salt  water  to 
relieve  the  inflammation. 

Some  jennets  give  great  quantities  of  milk.  It  is  a  good  plan 
not  to  give  much  stimulating  food  before  she  is  due  to  foal,  and 
not  have  her  too  fat.  Therefore,  the  food  should  be  reduced 
for  a  short  time  just  before  and  after  foaling. 


Fig.   51.  —  A    Two-year-old    Catalonian    Jack.     Owned    by    C.    F.    Cook, 

Lexington,  Ky. 


When  it  is  desired  to  re-breed  mares,  we  have  stated  that  they 
should  be  mated  about  the  seventh  or  ninth  day  after  foaling, 
for  should  they  fail  to  breed  then,  they  are  likely  not  to  come 
in  again  while  nursing  the  colt.  On  the  other  hand  jennets 
breed  much  later,  about  the  twelfth  to  fourteenth  day,  and  if 
they  fail  to  breed  then,  are  not  likely  to  mate  while  nursing. 


124 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Jack  colts  should  be  cared  for  and  weaned  much  as  suggested 
for  horses.  Because  of  the  length  of  jack  colts'  limbs,  they  seem 
to  be  more  liable  to  spring  their  fore  legs  when  feeding  on  pas- 
ture than  the  horse  colt.  They  are  required  to  put  too  much 
weight  on  the  fore  legs  to  enable  them  to  reach  the  grass,  and 
there  is  a  giving  way  in  the  joints;  usually  the  knee  springs  in 
or  out,  but  often  the  ankle  gives  way.  Again  when  the  dams  are 
low,  thus  compelling  the  colt  to  stoop  and  suck,  the  fore  limbs 


Fig.  52.  —  Two  Two-year-old  Jacks.     Owned  by  C.  F.  Cook,  Lexington,  Ky. 


are  often  cramped  in  such  position  as  to  increase  their  liability  to 
injury.  These  difficulties  are  so  serious  that  Knight  gives  the 
following  advice :  When  short  grazing  is  the  cause  of  the  trouble, 
put  the  colt  in  the  stable  and  feed  with  suitable  food;  when 
caused  by  a  low  dam,  the  difficulty  may  be  obviated  by  the  colt 
being  put  in  the  stable  and  fed  on  modified  cow's  milk,  or  milk 
from  the  dam. 

Mules  and  hinnies.  —  The  mule  is  the  product  of  a  jack  and 


THE  BREEDING   OF  HORSES  125 

mare.  A  hinny  is  the  product  of  a  stallion  mated  to  a  jennet. 
The  latter  is  seldom  seen  in  this  country.  It  resembles  the 
mule.  It  is  asserted,  however,  that  the  hinny  takes  more  the 
characters  of  the  horse,  the  head  is  neater  and  ears  shorter 
than  the  mule,  the  hair  in  mane  and  tail  heavier  and  the  foot 
larger.     The  bray  is  like  the  horse.     Hinnies  are  scarce  because 


Fig.  53.  —  A  Pair  of  Premium  Mules.     Owned  by  C.  F.  Cook,  Lexington,  Ky. 

the  stallion  has  an  aversion  to  the  jennet,  and  will  not  mate 
with  her  unless  he  has  been  reared  with  jennets. 

The  j  ack  is  likewise  peculiar  in  his  habits.  Jacks  will  not  serve 
both  mares  and  jennets.  Nor  will  a  jack  serve  a  mare  at  all  if 
reared  along  with  a  jennet.  In  the  rearing  of  mule-breeding 
jacks,  this  is  a  factor  of  much  importance  and  cannot  be  im- 
pressed too  strongly.  To  mate  with  mares,  in  order  to  breed 
mules,  a  jack  must  be  raised  along  with  mare  colts  and 
not    permitted   to   see  or   smell  a   jennet  until  well    broken 


126  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  trained  to  mate  mares  properly.  If  permitted  to  serve  a 
jennet,  he  will  not  again  serve  a  mare,  and  his  usefulness  as  a 
mule  breeder  is  at  an  end. 

It  is  best  to  have  a  stallion  to  tease  the  mare  when  a  jack  is 
to  be  used.  Some  mares  are  afraid  of  jacks  and  will  not  show 
signs  to  them,  hence  the  importance  of  having  a  stallion  as  a 
teaser.  After  the  mare  is  bred,  her  subsequent  treatment, 
should  be  the  same  as  suggested  for  brood  mares. 


CHAPTER  VI 
CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT   OF   HORSES 

Much  attention  has  been  given  the  feeding  as  well  as  the  breed- 
ing of  horses,  yet  each  of  these  will  fail  wholly  or  in  part  to  bring 
about  the  desired  results  unless  animals  thus  fed  and  bred  receive 
proper  care  and  attention.  Many  a  person  has  fallen  short  of 
success  in  breeding  by  depending  on  blood  alone  to  improve  the 
stock.  He  has  forgotten  that  all  of  our  improved  breeds  of 
horses  are  the  product  of  adequate  nutrition  as  well  as  intelli- 
gent breeding,  suitable  environment,  sufficient  shelter,  and 
kindly  care.  To  make  a  success  with  horses,  one  must  be  indus- 
trious, patient,  and  untiring.  He  must  have  a  fidelity  that  is 
unswerving.     He  must  have  a  genuine  love  for  his  work. 

GROOMING 

Nothing  contributes  so  much  to  the  beauty  and  the  luster  of 
the  coat  as  grooming.  As  a  consequence,  the  body  receives 
much  attention  and  the  legs  entirely  too  little,  whereas  the 
legs  should  receive  the  more  attention.  On  arriving  at  the 
stable,  if  the  animal's  legs  are  muddy,  they  should  be  roughly 
cleaned  by  using  a  half-worn  common  broom.  The  animal 
should  then  be  placed  in  the  stable,  fed,  unharnessed,  given  a 
thorough  grooming,  and  blanketed.  The  legs  should  not  then  be 
neglected,  but  be  given  a  thorough  and  rapid  brushing.  Time 
spent  in  cleaning  and  rubbing  the  horse  in  the  evening  after  the 
day's  work  is  done  is  worth  much  more  than  time  thus  spent 
in  the  morning. 

127 


128  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

If  the  animal  is  working  in  the  mud,  it  is  desirable  that  the  hair 
be  clipped  from  the  limbs.  It  is  then  all  the  more  important 
that  they  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  rubbed  each  even- 
ing after  work.  The  hoofs  should  be  examined  and  the  cleft 
between  the  sole  and  the  frog  cleaned. 

Animals  cared  for  in  this  way  will  pa}'  for  the  extra  care 
many  times  over  in  the  satisfaction  in  having  the  team  come  from 
the  stable  in  the  morning  in  the  best  of  spirit,  as  indicated  by  the 
pleasing  appearance,  the  snap  and  vigor  with  which  they  lift 
their  feet,  and  by  the  complete  absence  of  any  stiffness  in  the 
joints.  Again,  animals  whose  limbs  are  thus  cared  for  will  re- 
main comparatively  free  from  the  many  diseases  to  which  the 
legs  and  feet  are  subject,  This  care  will  greatly  increase  an 
animal's  efficiency  and  prolong  his  usefulness. 

CARE  OF  THE  HORSE'S  TEETH 

Occasionally  a  horse  does  not  feed  well,  due  to  irregularities  of 
his  teeth.  If  the  first,  or  milk  teeth,  are  not  looked  after,  they 
are  likely  to  remain,  causing  the  second,  or  permanent  teeth,  to 
grow  in  crooked.  The  young  horse's  mouth  should  be  closely 
watched  and  the  persistent  milk  teeth  removed  with  forceps. 
Again,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  upper  jaw  is  somewhat 
wider  than  the  lower,  and  as  the  teeth  are  not  perfectly  op- 
posed, a  sharp  edge  is  left  unworn  on  the  inside  of  the  lower 
molars  and  on  the  outside  of  the  upper,  which  may  cut  the 
tongue  or  cheeks.  This  condition  can  readily  be  felt  by  the 
hand,  and  the  sharp  edges  when  found  should  be  filed  down 
by  a  guarded  rasp;  otherwise  the  tongue  and  cheeks  be- 
come sore,  the  food  irritates  them,  and  the  horse  will  not  feed 
well. 

CLIPPING 

Clipping  consists  in  cutting  the  hair  over  the  entire  surface  of 
the  horse's  body.     Several  advantages  are  secured  from  clipping ; 


CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES  129 

it  improves  the  appearance  of  the  horse  and  makes  his  coat  more 
easy  to  keep  clean ;  a  clipped  horse  is  less  liable  to  take  cold  than 
a  long-coated  one  because  the  evaporation  is  more  rapid  and  the 
animal  does  not  get  so  warm ;  the  natural  process  of  shedding  the 
hair  is  a  draft  on  the  vitality  of  the  animal,  the  appetite  is  dimin- 
ished and  the  horse  runs  down  in  flesh.  Clipping  accomplishes 
in  a  very  short  time  what  nature  requires  much  time  to  do. 
From  this  it  would  seem  that  horses  with  long  thick  coats  should 
be  clipped.  The  long  coat  causes  them  to  become  warmer,  they 
sweat  more,  and  the  coat  holds  the  moisture,  and  then  when 
permitted  to  stand,  they  are  likely  to  catch  cold. 

If  horses  are  to  be  clipped  twice  each  year,  the  operation 
should  be  performed  the  first  time  soon  after  the  hair  has  grown 
out  in  the  fall.  When  thus  cared  for,  they  become  used  to  the 
change  before  cold  weather,  and  there  is  some  growth  of  hair 
before  winter.  The  second  clipping  should  be  in  early  spring 
as  soon  as  the  weather  begins  to  get  warm  and  before  the  winter 
coat  begins  to  shed.  Horses  thus  treated  will  be  much  more 
easily  kept  in  presentable  condition,  and  if  protected  by  blankets 
and  properly  groomed,  will  pay  many  times  over  for  such  extra 
care. 

When  horses  cannot  be  protected  from  the  cold  and  wet, 
either  in  the  stable  or  outside  of  it,  they  should  not  be  clipped  in 
the  fall.  Animals  exposed  to  the  weather  grow  a  long  coat  for 
their  own  protection. 

BEDDING   THE   HORSE 

A  horse  at  hard  work  needs  rest  at  night,  and  much  more 
rest  is  had  when  the  animal  is  given  a  good  liberal  bed.  The  bed- 
ding should  not  be  permitted  to  become  foul,  as  this  will  not  only 
lessen  the  comfort  of  the  animal  but  promote  disease  as  well.  Of 
bedding  materials,  straw  leads  the  list,  but  when  high  in  price, 
may  be  replaced  by  other  materials,  such  as  shavings  from  the 
planing  mill,  rejected  parts  of  corn  stalks,  tan  bark,  leaves,  and 

K 


130  MANUAL   OF  FABM  ANIMALS 

the  like.  Old  straw  is  preferred  to  new,  as  it  is  dryer  and  more 
elastic.  The  more  broken  and  bruised  the  straw  the  less  its 
bulk  and  elasticity  and  the  more  of  it  needed. 

BLANKETS 

In  cold  climates  the  use  of  blankets  is  indispensable.  The 
horse  will  prove  more  efficient  and  will  endure  much  longer  if 
reasonably  protected  against  sudden  changes  in  temperature,  the 
cold  rains,  and  heavy  winds. 

Stable  blanket.  —  The  proper  use  of  the  stable  blanket  is  of 
first  importance.  It  is  a  common  practice  after  the  day's  work 
to  hurry  the  horses  into  their  stalls,  unharness,  blanket  them  at 
once,  feed  and  leave  them  for  the  night ;  in  the  morning  it  is 
desired  to  get  to  work  early,  the  horses  are  fed,  the  blankets  re- 
moved, the  animal's  body  curried  a  very  little,  the  harness  is  put 
on,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  horses  are  at  work.  Animals  thus 
treated  stiffen  in  the  joints,  develop  leg  and  foot  diseases,  and  soon 
become  useless,  and  may  be  sold  or  traded  as  part  pa}rment  on 
others  to  undergo  the  same  treatment. 

The  usefulness  of  a  horse  can  be  prolonged  and  his  efficiency  in- 
creased by  proper  blanketing  and  grooming.  On  arriving  at  the 
stable  very  warm  and  sweating,  the  horse  should  not  be  blank- 
eted until  he  has  ceased  to  steam,  nor  should  he  be  left  in  a  draft 
If  blanketed  at  once,  little  opportunity  is  given  for  him  to  dry 
off,  the  blanket  will  become  damp,  and  the  hair  remain  so  all 
night.  In  case  the  blanket  is  not  used  until  the  animal  has 
ceased  to  steam  and  is  somewhat  cooled,  which  will  be  in  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  the  hair  will  be  dry  and  smooth  the  following 
morning.  Stable  blankets  may  be  dispensed  with  in  the  hot 
summer  months  if  the  flies  are  excluded  by  screens  or  by  some 
other  means.  If  blankets  are  used  at  this  time,  they  should  be 
of  light  material  and  kept  clean.  As  soon  as  the  nights  begin  to 
get  cool,  the  blankets  should  be  resumed,  as  an  early  use  will 
arrest  to  a  marked  degree  the  growth  of  hair.     This  may  obviate 


CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT   OF  HORSES  131 

the  necessity  of  clipping.  In  case  the  horse  is  clipped,  he  should 
be  covered  with  an  extra  heavy  blanket,  or  with  two  blankets, 
for  a  time. 

Outdoor  blanket.  —  The  use  of  the  outdoor  blanket  is  as  im- 
portant as  the  use  of  the  stable  blanket.  If  the  horse  is  allowed 
to  stand  outdoors,  either  for  a  short  or  for  a  long  time,  he  should 
be  well  blanketed.  If  one  is  going  to  stop  but  a  short  time,  the 
temptation  is  strong  not  to  blanket  the  animal.  The  horse  cools 
off  rapidly  and  may  chill,  so  that  it  is  best  to  blanket  if  only  for  a 
moment.  Again,  in  the  spring  when  the  weather  is  fair,  one  is 
likel}r  to  think  that  no  ill  will  result  from  leaving  the  animal  un- 
blanketed ;  and  yet  he  may  chill  as  before.  It  is  best,  on  stop- 
ping the  animal,  to  see  that  he  is  well  protected  at  all  times. 

CARE    OF    THE    FEET 

Because  of  the  great  importance  of  the  foot  it  should  be 
carefully  cared  for  throughout  the  active  career  of  the  horse. 
Each  evening  after  returning  from  work  as  well  as  in  the  morning 
before  being  sent  out,  the  sole  of  the  foot  should  be  examined  and 
all  foreign  materials  removed.  For  this  purpose  a  small  hay 
hook  with  the  point  sharpened  is  excellent.  It  is  very  common 
to  find  foreign  bodies,  such  as  nails  and  stones,  either  driven  into 
the  wall  or  sole  of  the  foot,  or  collected  in  the  clefts  along  the 
frog,  and  it  is  very  essential  that  they  be  removed  if  the  hoof  is 
to  remain  in  healthy  condition. 

Occasionally  the  hoofs  have  a  tendency  to  dry  out,  thus  be- 
coming hard  and  brittle.  Such  hoofs  should  be  oiled  with  some 
good  oil,  as  linseed  or  olive  oil,  or  with  hoof  ointment,  of  which 
there  are  many  kinds  on  the  market.  This  will  soften  the  wall 
of  the  hoof  and  make  it  less  likely  to  crack  or  break.  It  often 
happens  that  a  piece  is  worn  or  broken  from  the  side  of  the  hoof, 
which  throws  the  weight  of  the  body  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  a 
strain  upon  the  joints  of  the  leg,  which  often  causes  deformity 
and  disease.    When  such  break  occurs,  the  hoof  should  be  leveled 


132  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

with  a  rasp.  When  horses  are  closely  confined  in  the  stable, 
the  hoofs  grow  out  long,  and  if  not  trimmed,  will  deform  the 
limb  and  make  traveling  difficult. 

The  rate  of  growth  of  the  hoof  is  of  much  importance,  for  we 
are  often  interested  to  know  how  long  it  will  take  a  crack,  such 
as  quarter-crack,  side-crack,  or  toe-crack,  a  cleft,  or  a  calk  to  dis- 
appear. On  the  average,  the  hoof  grows  one-third  of  an  inch 
a  month.  Hind  hoofs  grow  faster  than  fore  hoofs  and  unshod 
ones  faster  than  shod.  While  influenced  to  some  extent  by  work 
or  exercise,  grooming,  moisture,  and  food,  the  time  required  for 
the  horn  to  grow  from  the  coronet  to  the  ground  varies  in  propor- 
tion to  the  distance  of  the  coronet  to  the  ground.  The  toe,  there- 
fore, depending  on  its  height,  grows  down  in  ten  to  thirteen 
months,  the  sides,  six  to  eight,  and  the  heel  in  three  to  five  months. 

Shoeing. — The  horse's  hoof  wears  off  faster  than  it  grows  out, 
and  it  becomes  sore.  In  order  to  prevent  the  hoof  from  wearing 
too  rapidly  the  feet  are  shod.  While  there  are  many  reasons  for 
applying  shoes,  the  most  important  are  as  follows :  — 

First,  to  prevent  wearing  away  of  the  hoof  in  order  that  it 
may  not  get  sore.  Horses  show  need  of  shoeing  first  in  the  fore 
feet,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  country  only  the  fore  feet  are  shod. 
For  this  purpose  the  light  shoe  is  preferred.  Second,  to  prevent 
slipping,  as  on  ice  or  mud.  For  this  purpose,  when  the  work  is 
hard,  one  needs  heavy  shoes  with  large  calks,  but  for  easy  work 
they  may  be  lighter.  In  this  connection  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  a  smooth-shod  (shoes  without  calks)  horse  slips  more  on  the 
ice  than  though  he  were  bare-footed.  There  are  several  makes 
of  shoes  with  removable  calks.  Third,  horses  are  shod  to 
modify  their  action. 

Of  the  many  things  to  be  considered  in  fitting  a  shoe  perhaps 
the  most  important  is  to  keep  the  foot  perfectly  level,  thus  pre- 
venting undue  weight  being  thrown  on  one  side,  and  other  attend- 
ant injuries:  The  frog  should  be  left  in  its  natural  size  and 
shape  to  serve  as  a  cushion  for  the  foot.     Make  the  foot  normal. 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT   OF  HORSES  133 

Then  make  the  shoe  fit  the  foot.  In  fitting  a  shoe,  nothing  will 
aid  one  as  much  as  a  careful  examination  of  the  wear  of  the  old 
shoe.  The  shoe  should  be  fitted  cold  or  not  so  hot  as  to  burn  the 
sole  when  placed  against  it  in  fitting.  In  nailing  the  shoe  to  the 
foot,  the  nail  holes  should  not  be  too  near  the  edge  of  the  sole, 
for  in  such  case  it  is  necessary  to  drive  the  nails  too  far  up  into 
the  wall  to  make  them  hold.  On  the  other  hand,  the  nail  holes 
should  be  well  back,  the  nails  small  in  size,  and  when  driven, 
should  be  brought  out  well  down  on  the  hoof.  If  driven  high, 
when  the  shoes  are  reset,  or  the  animal  reshod,  the  former  nail 
holes  are  near  the  edge  and  serve  to  weaken  the  hoof  and  interfere 
with  driving  the  new  nails.  After  driving  the  nails,  they  are  to  be 
clinched  in  a  small  groove  fitted  for  that  purpose.  Smooth  with 
rasp,  but  never  rasp  the  outside  of  the  hoof  as  it  will  remove  the 
natural  protective  covering.  This  natural  covering  should  not 
be  removed,  as  the  hoof  will  absorb  water  in  the  wet  season  and 
dry  out  much  more  rapidly  in  the  dry  season. 

TRAINING    THE    COLT 

The  colt  should  be  taught  subordination  at  the  very  start  and 
not  be  allowed  to  become  headstrong.  The  usefulness  of  the 
future  horse  will  depend  much  on  his  courage  and  fearlessness, 
and  it  is  to  promote  these  that  the  colt  should  become  familiar 
with  man  at  as  early  an  age  as  possible.  If  taken  in  time  and 
properly  handled,  he  need  never  know  fear.  A  colt  should  never 
be  frightened.  Too  many  persons  thoughtlessly  try  to  make 
the  young  colt  show  off  by  doing  something  to  startle  it,  by  run- 
ning at  it,  throwing  sticks,  " shooing"  it,  and  the  like,  which 
should  never  be  done  if  a  reliable  animal  is  to  be  developed. 
Teach  the  colt  useful  lessons  only.  Because  colts  are  bright  and 
very  susceptible  to  training,  they  are  often  taught  tricks  and  al- 
lowed to  become  mischievous  —  to  bite,  rear,  kick,  or  anything 
else  that  may  seem  "  cute."  These  very  things  later  become  a 
great  annoyance  and  are  very  hard  to  overcome.    One  should  not 


134 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


make  the  mistake  of  trying  to  teach  the  colt  too  much  at  a  time ; 
he  should  understand  each  lesson  thoroughly  before  a  second  is 
attempted.  On  the  other  hand,  colts  should  be  worked  con- 
tinuously day  by  day  and  not  simply  at  the  convenience  of  the 
trainer.  The  trainer  should  be  gentle  and  firm  at  all  times  and 
go  through  with  whatever  is  attempted. 

Training  to  the  halter.  —  The  foal  should  be  taught  very  early 
the  uses  of  the  halter;   first  to  lead,  then  to  drive.     But  even 

before  haltering  the 
youngster  may  be 
taught  to  "stand 
over/'  to  have  his 
foot  raised,  to  back, 
and  the  like.  In 
handling  the  colt 
be  careful  about  the 
ears,  the  back  of  the 
fore  legs,  and  the 
flanks,  as  these  are 
often  very  sensitive. 
Catch  the  colt  by 
putting  one  hand 
under  the  neck  and 
the  other  under  the 
hams  or  around  the 
buttocks  (Fig.  54). 
Never  catch  a  colt 
around  the  neck 
only  —  if  this  is  done,  the  colt  will  go  backwards  and  perhaps 
fall  —  but  instead  catch  him  around  both  ends,  as  described  ; 
then  if  he  attempts  to  go  forward,  press  back  with  the  hand 
under  his  neck,  and  if  he  attempts  to  go  backwards,  press  for- 
ward with  the  hand  that  is  around  the  buttocks.  Colts  caught 
in  this  way  will  let  one  walk  up  to  them,  whereas  if  they  are 


Fig.  54.  —  Method  of  catching  a  Young  Foal. 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES  135 

caught  around  the  neck,  there  may  be  difficulty  in  coming  near 
them. 

When  ready  to  halter  the  foal,  choose  a  strong,  well-fitting 
halter  and  not  a  new  one  that  smells  of  a  lot  of  things  that  are 
new  to  the  colt,  but  one  that  has  recently  been  used.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  pull  heavily  on  the  nose-band  at  any  time. 
Occasionally  deformed  face  lines  and  necks  are  caused  by  this 
means.  It  is  not  necessary  to  drag  a  colt  by  the  halter  in  order  to 
suggest  to  him  that  his  business  is  to  follow.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  reverse  effect  is  usual,  and  the  harder  a  colt  is  pulled,  the 
harder  he  holds  back.  If,  on  the  contrary,  he  is  coaxed  along  the 
accustomed  route,  as  to  the  water  trough  and  back,  he  will  soon 
follow  promptly.  If  he  resents,  however,  other  means  must  be 
tried.  Secure  a  small  rope,  the  size  of  a  light  clothes  line,  about 
ten  feet  long,  tie  a  noose  or  fasten  a  ring  on  one  end,  place  this 
gently  over  the  colt's  back  just  in  front  of  the  hips  with  the  noose 
or  ring  on  the  under  side  of  the  body,  so  that  when  the  other  end 
of  the  rope  is  run  through  the  noose,  the  rope  can  be  closely 
drawn  around  the  flanks ;  pass  the  rope  along  under  the  body, 
then  between  the  fore  legs,  then  up  through  the  ring  in  the  halter. 
Hold  the  halter  strap  in  one  hand,  the  light  rope  in  the  other,  pull 
gently  in  the  halter  strap,  and  as  the  colt  begins  to  shake  his  head 
give  the  light  rope  a  sharp  pull  and  the  colt  will  immediately  step 
forward.  Do  not  be  in  a  hurry,  but  give  the  colt  time  to  get 
used  to  the  lesson.     Soon  he  will  follow  wherever  you  lead. 

After  the  colt  understands  the  uses  of  the  halter  and  will  lead, 
he  may  be  taught  to  drive  with  lines  (Fig.  55).  To  do  this 
successfully  a  surcingle  properly  adjusted  is  required.  The  sur- 
cingle must  be  provided  with  loops  or  rings  on  each  side,  placed 
well  below  the  center  of  the  body,  the  lines  passed  through  these 
and  fastened  to  the  rings  on  either  side  of  the  halter ;  never  use 
a  bit  in  the  mouth  of  a  very  young  colt.  Now  the  lines  will 
pass  the  hind  quarters  low  down ,  and  thus  prevent  the  colt  from 
turning    with    his    head    towards    the    trainer.       It    is    very 


136 


MANUAL  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


important  to  keep  the  reins  low  in  turning  to  make  the  guid- 
ing process  easy.  After  a  little,  as  the  colt  becomes  accus- 
tomed to  being  driven,  he  can  be  touched  up  with  the  lines, 
guided  to  the  right  or  left,  but  he  should  be  stopped  often  to 
assure  him  he  is  doing  well. 

Training  to  the  uses  of  the  bit.  —  It  is  best  perhaps  to  train  the 
horse  to  the  uses  of  the  bit  when  he  is  about  two  years  of  age. 
The  manner  in  which  the  horse  is  educated  to  know  and  mind 


Fig.  55.  —  Arrangement  of  Halter  and  Lines  for  teaching  Young  Colt 

to  Drive. 


the  bit  will  go  far  towards  determining  his  usefulness.  Inas- 
much as  the  conveyance  of  the  master's  desire  to  the  horse's  mind 
for  execution  is  through  the  hands,  reins,  bit,  and  mouth,  no 
progress  can  be  made  and  none  should  be  attempted  until 
this  means  of  communication  has  been  well  established. 

Importance  of  a  good  mouth.  —  No  factor  contributes  so  much 
to  the  pleasure,  comfort,  and  safety  of  either  rider  or  driver  as  a 
responsive  mouth  in  a  horse  —  one  that  always  obeys  promptly 
the  slightest  instruction  from  the  master.     A  good  mouth  to  a 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT   OF  HORSES 


137 


large  extent  is  natural  to  the  horse.  Tender  and  bad  mouths 
usually  result  from  improper  handling.  Bad  mouths  are  very 
aggravating  and  often  the  cause  of  many  other  imperfections  — 
tongue  lolling,  crossing  the  jaws,  hobbling,  irregular  and  un- 
steady gaits,  and  the  like  —  many  of  which  when  well  established 
are  very  difficult  to  overcome. 

Bitting  the  colt.  —  The  young  animal  can  usually  be  made 
familiar  with  the  uses  of  the  bit  by  the  application  of  the  bitting 


Fig.  56.  —  Arrangement  of   "Fitting  Harness"   to  familiarize  the  Colt 

with  the  Bit. 


harness  or  "dumb  jockey."  This  harness  consists  of  an  open 
bridle  with  a  large  smooth  bit  and  check-rein,  a  surcingle  and 
crupper,  and  two  side-lines  running  from  the  bit  to  buckles  on 
either  side  of  the  surcingle  (Fig  56).  The  adjustment  of  the 
bridle  is  important.     The  length  of  the  head-stall  must  be  so 


138  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

adjusted  as  to  bring  the  bit  in  mild  contact  with  the  bars  of  the 
mouth.  If  the  head-stall  is  too  short,  the  bars  and  the  corners 
of  the  mouth  soon  become  sore,  and  the  animal  may  become 
vicious  ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  too  long,  the  bit  drops  down 
in  the  mouth  and  the  animal  becomes  careless.  With  the  bit- 
ting harness  properly  adjusted,  turn  the  colt  into  the  familiar 
open  paddock  to  get  used  to  having  the  bit  in  his  mouth.  The 
check-  and  side-reins  should  be  left  slack  at  first.  Gradually 
from  day  to  day  the  reins  should  be  shortened,  care  being  taken 
that  they  are  never  made  so  short  as  to  place  the  head  in  an  un- 
comfortable position,  or  draw  the  bit  so  tightly  as  to  make  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  sore.  The  colt  should  be  subjected  to  the 
use  of  this  apparatus  for  a  few  hours  each  day  for  perhaps  a  week 
or  less,  depending  on  the  individual.  Real  lines  may  now  be 
substituted  for  the  side-reins  and  the  colt  driven  until  he  knows 
how  to  guide  this  way  and  that ;  to  stop  at  the  word  "whoa," 
and  to  step  forward  at  the  command  "get  up."  Train  the  colt 
to  stand  absolutely  still  when  being  harnessed,  saddled,  or 
when  it  is  desired  that  he  should  stand.  A  horse  that  is  con- 
tinually stepping  about  while  one  is  working  with  him  is  but  half 
trained  at  best. 

Harnessing  the  colt.  —  After  the  colt  has  become  familiar  with 
the  bitting  apparatus  and  has  learned  to  obey  simple  commands 
he  may  be  harnessed.  Do  not  use  new  harness,  smelling  of 
things  unfamiliar,  but  one  that  has  been  in  constant  use,  pref- 
erably by  a  horse  that  the  colt  knows.  After  being  driven  with 
the  bitting  apparatus  for  a  time  and  the  colt  is  rather  tired,  put 
him  in  his  stall,  bring  the  collar  to  him,  let  him  smell  of  it  if  he 
likes,  then  put  it  right  on  as  if  he  were  an  old  horse.  Now  get 
the  harness,  walk  up  to  him,  and  lift  it  gently  over  his  back. 
Do  not  stand  off  and  throw  the  harness  over  his  back,  for  the 
loose  straps  hitting  his  back  and  abdomen  will  be  resented,  and 
he  may  kick.  Walk  behind  him,  put  the  crupper  strap  on,  then 
step  to  the  side  and  fasten  the  bands. 


CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES  139 

The  harness  should  be  of  good  quality  and  in  good  repair ;  if  a 
part  breaks,  there  may  be  trouble  and  the  colt  ruined  for  all  time. 
See  to  it  that  it  fits  perfectly.  The  collar  should  receive  atten- 
tion, as  it  is  by  means  of  this  that  the  horse  exerts  his  power. 
The  colt's  shoulders  are  likely  to  be  tender  and  easily  abraded, 
and  we  must  see  that  the  collar  fits  him  well.  The  collar  must 
be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  When  the  colt  is  fleshy,  we  must 
watch  to  see  that  he  does  not  lose  flesh,  and  the  collar,  which 
fitted  perfectly  in  the  beginning,  become  too  large.  A  breast- 
collar  is  admissible  when  the  load  is  light  ;  it  must  not  be  ad- 
justed so  high  as  to  choke  the  horse  nor  so  low  as  to  interfere 
with  the  action  of  his  limbs.  The  saddle  and  the  crupper  also 
need  careful  attention.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  them  fit, 
neither  too  loose  nor  too  tight,  and  then  to  keep  them  clean,  lest 
they  abrade  the  back  or  tail  and  produce  a  vicious  horse. 

Hitching  double. — With  the  harness  properly  adjusted,  the  colt 
is  ready  to  be  hitched  to  a  vehicle.  Get  a  well-trained,  gentle, 
but  active  horse  if  the  colt  is  active,  for  it  is  a  mistake  to  hitch  a 
quick,  active  colt  with  a  slow,  lazy  horse.  The  vehicle  to  which 
they  are  attached  should  be  provided  with  a  good  brake.  The 
colt  should  be  attached  to  the  "off  side"  and  the  team  be 
driven  at  first  in  a  closed  field  till  the  colt  learns  what  is  wanted 
of  him.  When  hitching  the  colt  double  for  the  first  few  times,  it 
is  well  to  keep  a  pair  of  single  lines  on  the  colt's  bridle  which  can 
be  handled  by  an  assistant. 

Hitching  single.  —  When  the  colt  is  desired  for  single  use,  it  is 
often  advisable  to  train  him  to  go  single  from  the  first.  This 
may  be  done  after  he  has  become  familiar  with  the  bit,  harness, 
and  use  of  the  lines.  When  training  the  colt  to  go  single,  a  train- 
ing-cart —  one  with  long  shafts,  substantially  constructed,  and 
the  seat  so  arranged  that  the  driver  can  get  off  and  on  quickly  — 
should  be  employed.  Such  a  cart  can  easily  be  constructed  from 
the  rear  wheels  and  the  axle  of  a  buggy  or  carriage  by  fastening 
two  long  poles,  —  hickory  or  any  tough,  springy  wood,  —  to  the 


140 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


axle,  securing  a  cross-bar  and  whippletree  in  front,  and  a  board 
seat  in  the  rear.  The  shafts  should  be  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  long, 
with  provision  at  the  ends  for  the  attachment  of  a  strap  across 
from  point  to  point  to  prevent  the  colt  in  rearing  from  throwing 
his  front  leg  over  the  end  of  the  shaft.  At  first  a  kick-strap  at- 
tached to  each  shaft  and  passed  over  the  colt's  rump  should  be 
used,  at  least  till  the  colt  is  accustomed  to  the  shafts  (Fig.  57). 
When  the  colt  is  first  hitched,  an  assistant  should  hold  him  until 


Fig.  57.  —  Colt  hitched  for  the  First  Time,  showing  Arrangement  of 

Kick-Strap  over  Rump. 


the  driver  is  ready,  then  he  should  be  allowed  to  go.  As  soon  as 
he  has  become  familiar  with  the  vehicle  he  should  be  compelled 
to  stand  still  until  he  is  wanted  to  start. 

Training  to  mount.  —  In  training  a  colt  to  mount,  one  must  be 
very  careful  that  the  colt  does  not  succeed  in  throwing  the 
trainer,  for  if  he  once  succeeds  in  getting  the  man  off,  one  will 
never  be  able  to  convince  him  that  he  cannot  do  it  again.  The 
best  time  to  take  the  colt  is  after  he  has  been  exercised  vigorously 
and  while  tired.     The  best  place  is  on  soft  ground  where  he  can 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES  141 

hurt  neither  himself  nor  the  rider.  Put  on  the  saddle  in  the  same 
way  as  we  did  the  harness ;  see  that  it  is  fastened  securely. 
Have  an  assistant  hold  the  colt's  head  while  you  mount.  The 
horse  may  rear,  bound  forward,  buck,  or  lie  down.  In  any  event, 
the  rider  must  stay  on,  remembering  that  the  colt  is  already  tired 
and  on  soft  ground.     It  is  often  an  endurance  trial,  and  this  is 


Fig.  58. — Arrangement  of  the  "Double  Safety"  for  controlling  Vicious 

Horses. 

When  the  horse  strikes  or  rears,  the  trainer  pulls  the  safety  and  the  horse 

conies  down  on  his  knees. 


the  reason  why  one  must  have  the  colt  tired  to  begin  with,  for 
otherwise  he  may  be  able  to  bound  and  buck  till  the  rider  is  so 
exhausted  that  he  can  no  longer  hold  to  the  saddle. 

HARNESS   AND   HARNESSING 

In  harnessing  the  horse,  much  care  should  be  exercised  in  prop- 
erly adjusting  the  various  parts  of  the  harness.  Properly  fitted 
harness  adds  much  to  the  efficiency  and  comfort  of  the  horse. 
This  is  well  emphasized  by  the  sore  mouth,  shoulders,  neck,  back, 
and  tail  produced  by  poorly  fitted  harness.  The  tension  on 
these  parts  is  rather  great,  and  as  they  are  very  tender  they  are 


142  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  places  likely  first  to  show  abrasion.  Sores  thus  produced 
give  the  horse  much  pain  and  are  likely  to  become  a  cause  of 
viciousness.  Sore  mouth  thus  often  provokes  a  horse  to  run 
away ;  sore  shoulders  and  neck  often  provoke  balking  ;  and  sore 
tail  often  provokes  kicking.  Since  the  efficiency  and  comfort  of 
the  horse  depend  so  largely  on  the  adjustment  of  the  bit,  lines, 
collar,  saddle,  and  crupper,  it  seems  desirable  to  discuss  each  of 
these  separately. 

The  bit  and  the  bridle.  —  When  one  recalls  the  extreme  tender- 
ness of  the  mouth,  the  cruel  manner  in  which  it  is  often  bitted, 
the  irritation  from  the  sores,  he  can  understand  why  a  horse  may 
lag  behind  till  the  parts  become  numbed,  then  begin  to  pull, 
holding  the  head  to  one  side,  going  with  mouth  open,  lolling  the 
tongue,  slobbering,  tossing  the  head,  crossing  the  jaws,  and 
in  many  other  ways  showing  evidence  of  the  discomfort  he  is 
suffering. 

The  bit.  —  Bits  of  many  types  have  been  devised  to  meet  the 
various  and  peculiar  habits  of  horses,  most  of  which  have  been 
designed  to  punish  the  horse  and  irritate  the  sensitive  parts. 
With  the  punishment  of  the  whip  at  the  rear  and  a  harsh  and 
severe  bit  at  the  front  the  horse  is  between  two  goads,  and  if  he 
does  not  balk,  rear,  plunge,  or  run  away,  he  is  exceptional. 

A  good-sized  straight  bit  covered  with  leather  or  rubber,  if  the 
mouth  is  tender,  cannot  be  improved  on  in  most  cases.  One 
must  be  careful  to  get  a  bit  of  the  proper  length  for  the  horse's 
mouth.  Many  bits  are  too  long  and  are  pulled  out  of  adjust- 
ment in  the  mouth,  so  that  the  pressure  on  either  side  is  not 
equal.  The  bit  must  be  of  the  correct  length  for  the  particular 
animal,  and  properly  adjusted. 

Some  horses  work  better  with  the  jointed  or  snaffle  bit.  It 
gives  more  room  for  the  tongue,  and  the  pressure  is  more  evenly 
distributed  on  the  jaws  than  with  the  straight  bit.  Severe  bits, 
of  which  there  are  many  in  the  market,  and  which  are  intended 
for  punishment,  should  never  be  used  unless  it  is  absolutely 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES  143 

necessary.  Such  bits  in  the  hands  of  a  novice  are  responsible 
for  much  of  the  viciousness  of  horses.  The  tendency  of  the 
nervous  horse  to  loll  his  tongue  can  often  be  cured  by  the  use 
of  the  " tongue-lolling  bit."  This  is  a  straight-bar  bit  with 
a  plate  fastened  on  the  bar,  and  is  just  as  easy  in  the  horse's 
mouth  as  the  plain  straight-bar  bit  except  for  the  annoyance  of 
the  plate. 

In  the  training  and  driving  of  high-acting  horses  the  curb-bib 
may  be  used.  A  horse  properly  bitted  with  this  shows  himself 
to  better  advantage  than  with  any  other  kind  of  bit.  The  curb- 
bit  should  be  used  only  by  those  who  are  familiar  with  it,  as  it 
may  become  an  instrument  of  torture  in  the  hands  of  the  in- 
experienced. 

The  choice  of  the  proper  bit  for  each  horse  can  be  determined 
only  by  trial,  and  if  several  changes  are  necessary,  one  should  not 
be  discouraged.  However,  when  it  has  been  determined  which 
bit  best  serves  the  purpose,  no  further  change  should  be  made. 
After  becoming  used  to  a  certain  kind  of  bit  a  horse  does  not  take 
kindly  to  a  change.  It  makes  him  uncomfortable  and  may  in- 
terfere with  his  action. 

Headstall  —  The  bridle  should  be  so  fitted  to  the  horse's 
head  as  to  let  the  bit  rest  easily  in  the  mouth.  The  head-stall 
should  be  neither  too  long  nor  too  short.  If  it  is  too  long,  the  bit 
drops  so  that  the  rings  are  drawn  into  the  mouth.  The  horse 
becomes  careless  and  unmindful  of  the  driver's  wish.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  head-stall  is  too  short,  the  bit  is  drawn  up- 
wards into  the  angles  of  the  mouth  and  becomes  a  constant 
source  of  annoyance  to  the  animal  and  may  produce  a  sore 
mouth. 

Blinds.  —  As  to  the  advisability  of  using  blinds  on  the  bridles 
there  is  diversity  of  opinion.  Some  persons  contend  that  they 
are  of  benefit  to  the  horse,  while  others  are  just  as  certain  that 
they  are  cruel.  Here  much  depends  upon  the  individuality  of 
the  animal.     Some  animals  work  better  with  them ;  some  work 


144  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

better  without  them.  If  the  horse  works  better  with  blinds  on 
the  bridle,  use  them;  if  he  works  better  with  the  open  bridle, 
discontinue  the  blinds.  If  blinds  are  used,  they  should  be  firmly 
adjusted  to  the  bridle  so  they  cannot  swing  back  and  forth. 
Both  should  be  of  the  same  height  on  the  horse's  head,  as  it  is 
very  unsightly  as  well  as  annoying  to  the  horse  to  have  one 
placed  low  and  the  other  high  on  the  face. 

Center-pieces,  ear-bobs,  and  tassels.  —  It  is  said  that  such  fix- 
tures add  to  the  appearance  of  the  turnout.  While  fashion  and 
custom  seem  to  demand  a  certain  amount  of  unnecessary  fixtures 
to  worry  and  annoy  the  horse,  the  use  of  them  cannot  be  too 
strongly  condemned. 

The  check-rein.  —  The  check-rein  should  be  properly  adjusted. 
In  common  practice  there  are  two  methods  of  checking  the  horse's 
head  —  by  means  of  the  side-rein  and  by  the  over-check  rein. 
The  former  is  used  more  often  on  work  horses,  the  latter  on  driv- 
ing horses.  The  side-rein  is  used  with  and  without  check  hooks 
at  the  throat-latch.  This  rein  is  not  so  effective  in  compelling 
the  animal  to  hold  his  head  up,  but  is  much  more  comfortable  to 
the  horse  and  enables  him  to  handle  himself  more  efficiently. 
Horses  checked  with  the  side-rein  are  not  so  likely  to  stumble 
as  those  with  the  over-check  rein,  and  will  pull  a  much  heavier 
load.  This  is  because  they  have  more  liberty  with  the  head, 
thereby  enabling  them  to  see  the  ground  immediately  in  front 
and  to  lower  the  head  and  thus  throw  more  power  into  the  collar. 

The  over-check  rein  was  devised  for  trotting  horses,  but  has 
become  so  popular  that  it  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  driving 
horses.  Originally  it  was  used  on  the  track  where  the  surface 
is  as  smooth  as  a  floor,  and  was  employed  only  for  short  periods. 
To-day  it  is  used  on  roads  of  all  sorts  and  for  indefinite  periods. 
There  are  many  strong  objections  to  its  use  if  drawn  too  tightly, — 
as  is  the  tendency.  It  holds  the  horse's  head  in  such  position 
that  he  is  unable  to  see  the  ground  immediately  in  front  of  him, 
so  that  he  is  very  likely  to  stumble.     It  also  holds  the  head 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES  145 

in  such  a  way  that  he  cannot  pull  efficiently.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  in  ascending  a  steep  grade.  The  animal  is  unable  to 
lower  his  head  and  hence  can  put  little  power  into  the  collar. 
An  animal  that  is  stalled  when  thus  reined  can  often  pull  the  load 
if  unreined  or  if  the  driver  will  ride  him,  thus  bringing  forward 
the  center  of  gravity  and  enabling  the  animal  to  get  a  firmer  hold 
on  the  ground  and  to  put  more  power  into  the  collar.  The 
over-check  rein  is  also  very  hard  on  the  animal's  back  and  front 
limbs  in  descending  a  grade.  Again,  it  holds  the  head  and  neck 
in  such  an  unnatural  position  that  they  soon  become  numbed, 
and  the  horse  is  seen  to  toss  his  head  from  side  to  side  and  to 
take  other  characteristic  attitudes  in  search  of  relief. 

The  horse  should  always  be  reined  mildly.  Without  the  rein 
he  is  likely  to  become  careless  in  his  habits,  shambling  in  his 
gait,  and  to  yield  to  the  temptation  to  eat  grass  when  standing. 
When  the  animal  lowers  his  head  and  neck  the  lines,  collar,  and 
breast-harness  slip  down  and  he  is  likely  to  become  tangled  in 
the  harness  and  may  get  into  difficulty. 

Fitting  the  collar.  —  The  service  of  the  horse  is  largely  accom- 
plished by  the  shoulders,  and  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
the  collar  fit  the  neck  and  shoulders  perfectly.  Poorly  fitted 
collars  cause  the  horse  much  pain,  result  in  sore  necks  and 
shoulders,  and  are  a  common  cause  of  viciousness  and  bad  habits. 
Because  of  the  extreme  importance  of  having  a  well-fitting  collar, 
many  makes  have  been  put  on  the  market,  such  as  the  leather, 
the  sweeny,  the  half  sweeny,  the  pneumatic,  the  steel,  and  the 
humane,  each  asserting  superiority  over  the  others  (Fig.  59). 
Each  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages.  No  attempt  is 
made  here  to  favor  any  style  or  make  ;  only  general  suggestions 
are  given. 

Fitting  the  collar  is  a  rather  difficult  task.  It  is  so  firm  and 
stiff  that  usually  it  is  impossible  to  buckle  the  harness  tight 
enough  to  bring  it  to  the  shape  of  the  animal's  neck,  and  the 
shoulders  are  therefore  adjusted  to  the  collar  rather  than  the 


146  MANUAL   OF  FABM  ANIMALS 

collar  to  the  shoulders,  with  sore  shoulders  as  the  result.  To 
avoid  this  soreness,  it  is  necessary  that  the  stiff  collar  be  adjusted 
to  the  shoulders  of  the  horse  for  which  it  is  intended.  To  do  this, 
take  the  poorly  fitting  collar,  new  or  old,  place  it  in  three  inches 
of  water  and  let  it  remain  over  night.  In  the  morning  put  the 
collar  on  the  horse,  and  with  hame-straps  draw  it  snugly  to  the 
sides  of  the  neck;  be  sure  that  the  hame-straps  are  properly 
adjusted,  then  work  the  horse  moderately  through  the  day. 
After  soaking  in  this  way  the  collar  will  adjust  itself  to  every 
inequality  of  the  shoulder,  and  the  horse  will  seldom  be  troubled 
with  soreness. 


Fig.  59.  —  Types  of  Collars:   (1)  common  leather;  (2)  half  sweeny;  (3)  steel; 

(4)  pneumatic  ;  (5)  humane. 

Every  horse  should  have  his  own  collar.  It  should  fit  close 
to  the  neck  along  its  entire  width  and  should  never  be  tight  in 
some  places  and  loose  in  others.  The  hame-straps  should  be 
properly  adjusted  at  top  and  bottom  to  suit  the  shape  of  the 
horse's  neck.  Be  sure  at  all  times  that  the  lower  hame-strap  is 
buckled  as  tightly  as  the  thickness  of  the  neck  will  permit.  Oc- 
casionally the  careless  driver  fails  to  buckle  the  hames  tightly, 
and  when  the  horse  is  backed,  the  hames  slip  off  the  collar.  This 
may  not  be  noticed  at  the  time,  and  the  animal  be  compelled  to 
pull  the  load  with  the  hames  resting  on  the  shoulders. 

Adjusting  the  hame-tug.  —  The  adjustment  of  the  hame-tug  is 
also  an  important  matter  and  should  receive  the  closest  attention. 
If  the  draft  is  too  low,  the  action  of  the  shoulder  while  walking 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES  147 

gives  too  much  back-and-forward  motion  to  the  collar,  which 
is  noticeable  at  the  hame  tops.  This  is  likely  to  cause  sore 
shoulders  either  at  the  points  or  at  the  top.  If  the  draft  is  too 
high,  the  likelihood  of  injury  will  be  equally  great.  There  is  a 
proper  place  for  the  draft,  varying  with  the  conformation  of  the 
horse.  When  the  hame-tugs  are  at  the  proper  place,  there  will 
be  very  little  motion  at  the  top  of  the  hames  as  the  horse  walks. 
Again,  the  tugs  should  be  so  adjusted  that  they  are  both  of  the 
same  length.  Often  careless  drivers  hitch  one  tug  longer  than 
the  other,  which  is  very  hard  on  the  horse,  and  a  source  of  much 
extra  exertion  as  well  as  sore  shoulders. 

Breast  harness.  — For  light  driving,  breast  harness  is  admissible 
and  is  to  be  preferred  for  such  light  rigs  as  runabouts  and  buggies. 
In  the  adjustment  of  breast  harness,  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  neck  strap  is  not  so  long  as  to  let  the  breast  harness  drop  and 
interfere  with  the  action  of  the  fore  limbs.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  neck  strap  should  not  be  so  short  as  to  draw  the  breast 
harness  up  and  choke  the  animal.  The  breast  harness  is  in- 
tended for  light  work  only,  and  if  the  load  is  heavy,  the  horse 
may  choke.  This  is  particularly  true  in  ascending  a  steep 
grade.     Much  care  should  be  exercised  in  its  use. 

Fitting  the  back-band  and  crupper.  —  Perhaps  next  in  impor- 
tance to  the  bit  and  collar  is  the  crupper.  If  the  back-band  or  the 
check-rein  is  too  short  and  the  crupper  is  drawn  too  tight  against 
the  tail,  it  is  likely  to  cause  soreness ;  since  this  is  a  very  tender 
part,  it  may  lessen  the  reliability  of  the  horse.  A  horse  with  a 
sore  tail  is  hard  to  manage.  At  any  time  he  may  get  his  tail  over 
the  line,  become  excited  through  fear  that  the  abraded  part  will 
be  injured,  clamp  his  tail  down  on  the  line,  and  be  difficult  to 
control.  If  the  back-band  is  too  long  and  the  crupper  too  loose, 
it  is  likely  to  result  in  the  back-band,  crupper,  hip-straps,  and 
breeching  all  slipping  off  to  one  side  of  the  horse,  with  the  result 
that  the  animal  may  become  excited  and  difficult  to  manage.  It 
is  therefore  necessary  that  the  back-band  and  check-rein  be  so 


148  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

adjusted  that  the  saddle  is  in  the  proper  place  on  the  back  and 
the  crupper  fits  snugly  under  the  tail ;  then  there  will  be  no 
trouble  from  sore  back  or  sore  tail. 

Fly-nets.  —  The  use  of  fly-nets  often  brings  much  comfort 
to  working  animals.  Such  horses  should  be  provided  with 
throat-latch  cloths  when  the  bot-flies  are  present,  as  these  pests 
are  very  annoying,  and  the  animals  in  fighting  them  will  often 
become  excited,  with  a  consequent  lessening  of  their  usefulness. 
Whether  to  use  fly-nets  or  fly-blankets  may  depend  on  con- 
ditions. The  use  of  the  fly-blanket  is  not  advised  by  many  per- 
sons, but  there  are  conditions  in  which  it  proves  very  desirable, 
particularly  on  horses  whose  color  is  such  as  to  fade  on  being 
exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  fly-blanket,  while 
very  efficient  in  retaining  the  color  and  keeping  out  the  flies,  is 
not  so  presentable  and  is  much  warmer  than  the  open  net. 
Leather  fly-nets  are  the  most  presentable  and  the  most  desired  by 
horsemen.  But  fly-nets  and  fly-blankets  are  rather  annoying  to 
the  teamster  and  are  more  or  less  expensive,  for  which  reasons 
they  are  often  discarded  entirely. 

To  do  away  with  the  use  of  fly-nets  a  number  of  "  fly-killer " 
preparations  have  been  compounded.  These  materials  are  ap- 
plied with  a  small  sprayer,  and  to  be  effective  must  be  used  often. 
It  is  said  that  they  "do  not  soil  or  injure  the  hair  and,  all  things 
considered,  are  cheaper  and  more  satisfactory  outdoor  fly  pro- 
tectors than  are  blankets." 

Caring  for  harness.  —  The  proper  care  of  the  harness  should 
receive  much  consideration,  as  care  will  increase  the  length  of  its 
usefulness  and  lessen  the  liability  of  its  injuring  the  animal.  It 
is  very  important  that  the  bearing  parts  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean  at  all  times.  This  applies  particularly  to  the  parts  in  con- 
stant contact  with  the  animal,  as  the  collar,  saddle,  and  crupper. 
It  is  not  possible  to  prevent  sore  shoulders,  sore  back,  and  sore 
tail  if  these  parts  are  permitted  to  become  dirty,  which  they 
will,  because  of  the  sweat  and  dandruff.     They  must  be  carefully 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES  149 

watched  and  frequently  cleaned.  It  is  best  to  clean  these  parts 
each  morning  before  harnessing  the  horses  or,  better  still, 
immediately  after  removing  the  harness. 

Harness  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  oiled  at  least  once  a 
year,  preferably  in  the  spring.  This  will  cause  it  to  retain  its 
fiber  and  to  last  longer.  While  there  are  many  ways  of  cleaning 
and  oiling  harness,  the  following  is  as  simple  and  effective  as  any: 
Take  the  harness  apart  and  soak  the  parts  in  a  wash-tub  of  luke- 
warm water  containing  a  handful  of  washing  soda.  Let  the 
harness  soak  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  then  scrub  the  parts 
on  a  board  with  an  ordinary  scrub-brush.  When  the  leather 
is  nearly  dry,  blacken  with  edge  blackening,  which  can  be  ob- 
tained at  any  harness  shop.  Unless  the  harness  is  thus  black- 
ened or  lamp  black  put  in  the  oil,  it  will  turn  red.  When  dry, 
take  a  cotton  cloth  and  rub  the  harness  thoroughly.  Always 
rub  straps  with  the  grain.  This  lays  down  the  fiber  and  gives 
a  smooth  edge.  Take  a  quart  of  neatsfoot  oil,  add  a  small 
quantity  of  kerosene,  mix  and  warm,  then  give  the  leather  two 
coats,  using  the  oil  freely.  Hang  up  to  dry,  taking  care  not  to 
hang  in  the  sun.  When  the  oil  is  well  dried,  sponge  with  white 
castile  soap  and  buckle  the  parts  together.  Harness  treated  in 
this  way  will  neither  turn  red  nor  become  gummy,  and  if  often 
sponged  with  white  castile  soap,  can  be  kept  looking  like  new. 

A  number  of  oils  may  be  used  if  neatsfoot  oil  is  not  at  hand, 
such  as  olive,  codliver,  or  castor  oil,  all  of  which  are  considered 
good  for  harness.  In  case  the  edge  blackening  cannot  be  pro- 
cured, put  enough  lamp  black  in  the  oil  at  the  time  the  kerosene 
is  added  to  turn  it  black.  The  lampblack  will  prevent  the 
leather  from  turning  red. 

Harness  room.  —  Another  factor  that  must  not  be  overlooked 
in  the  care  of  harness  is  the  place  where  it  is  kept.  It  frequently 
happens  that  the  harness  is  hung  on  hooks  just  back  of  the  horse 
in  the  stable.  There  are  at  least  two  very  strong  objections  to 
this  practice.     In  the  first  place,  gases  escaping  from  the  manure 


150  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

are  very  destructive  to  the  harness  ;  and  in  the  second  place,  the 
harness  is  frequently  knocked  down  under  the  animal's  feet  and 
becomes  soiled  with  manure.  It  is  much  better  to  have  a  har- 
ness room  convenient  to  the  horse  stable  where  all  harness  can 
be  kept.  When  it  is  kept  in  a  separate  room,  it  is  much  less 
difficult  to  keep  in  order.  If  one  has  a  hanger  for  each  horse's 
harness  and  hangs  it  there  each  time,  the  work  will  be  much 
lighter  than  otherwise.  A  well-kept  harness  room  will  pay  for 
itself  each  year  because  of  the  ease  with  which  the  harness  is 
kept  in  condition  and  the  increased  time  that  it  will  last. 


CHAPTER  VII 
DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE 

The  horse  is  a  robust  animal  and  with  proper  care  is  easily 
kept  in  health.  Like  all  other  farm  animals,  however,  he  is 
subject  to  ills  and  accidents,  many  of  which  can  be  prevented  if 
taken  in  time,  while  if  they  go  unnoticed,  may  become  serious  and 
render  the  animal  useless.  Every  one  who  owns  a  horse  should 
know  how  to  care  for  the  simpler  difficulties,  and  when  to  call  for 
the  advice  of  a  veterinarian.  This  chapter  will  not  take  the  place 
of  a  veterinarian ;  it  may  tell  you  when  to  call  one.  Now  that  we 
are  giving  so  much  attention  to  feeding  and  breeding  we  should 
also  give  additional  thought  to  the  difficulties  and  ailments. 

The  horse  is  subject  to  a  very  large  number  of  ailments, 
some  of  which  are  simple  and  easily  cared  for,  more  of  which  are 
complicated  and  require  skillful  treatment.  Little  more  than 
a  catalogue  of  the  more  common  ailments  is  given  in  the  follow- 
ing pages ;  to  discuss  them  fully  would  require  a  volume  larger 
than  this  manual.1 

TREATING    SICK    HORSES 

Horses  that  are  ailing  should  receive  much  care.  In  many 
cases  good  care  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  use  of  medicine.  In 
other  cases  rest  is  to  be  preferred  to  both.  The  aim  is  to  hasten 
recovery  from  the  ill  effects  of  the  ailment ;  and  to  be  most 
efficient  one  must  understand  the  horse  thoroughly  and  be  able 

1  The  reader  may  consult  Mayo's  "  Diseases  of  Animals"  for  fuller 
popular  description  and  treatment. 

151 


152  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

to  supply  his  every  need.  He  must  be  careful,  painstaking,  and 
patient.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  look  for  the  cause  of  the 
trouble,  and  if  possible,  to  remove  it.  If  the  disease  is  con- 
tagious, the  ailing  animal  should  be  put  away  from  other 
animals  equally  susceptible  to  the  disease.  Whether  contagious 
or  otherwise,  the  quarters  should  be  comfortable.  Note  care- 
fully the  surroundings  of  the  animal,  the  work  it  has  been 
doing,  the  exercise,  general  care,  food,  water,  and  the  source 
of  infection  if  the  disease  is  contagious. 

The  food  should  receive  much  attention.  When  the  horse 
can  eat,  a  small  quantity  of  easily  digestible  and  nutritious  food 
should  be  given.  The  food  should  not  contain  much  bulk  and 
should  be  rather  laxative,  as  sickness  often  brings  constipation. 
It  should  be  as  attractive  as  possible,  as  the  appetite  is  usually 
poor  and  sometimes  lacking.  When  it  can  be  prevented,  medi- 
cine should  not  be  put  in  the  food  or  water,  unless  tasteless  and 
odorless,  as  the  horse  is  likely  to  refuse  the  food  when  it  is  im- 
portant that  he  should  have  it.  Natural  foods,  such  as  fresh 
grass,  roots,  bran  mash,  and  milk,  are  to  be  preferred  to  prepared 
foods,  though  the  use  of  patent  stock  foods  may  prove  beneficial 
in  certain  minor  ailments,  when  a  tonic  is  valuable.  The  feed 
boxes  should  be  kept  clean,  and  if  any  food  is  left,  it  should  be 
removed  and  not  left  until  the  next  meal. 

In  certain  ailments,  it  is  necessary  to  protect  the  horse  against 
the  cold  or  from  drafts.  This  can  be  done  by  the  use  of  blankets. 
To  protect  the  limbs,  bandages  may  be  applied.  The  bandage 
should  be  made  from  strips  of  woolen  cloth  about  three  inches 
wide  and  five  to  eight  feet  long.  Make  it  into  a  neat  roll,  then 
apply  by  beginning  at  the  lower  or  smaller  part  of  the  limb 
and  wind  upwards.  This  requires  considerable  patience  and 
skill,  but  after  a  few  attempts  it  will  stay  in  place. 

In  those  ailments  in  which  the  horse  cannot,  stand,  yet  should 
remain  in  an  upright  position,  a  sling  is  used.  A  sling  consists 
of  a  wide  strip  of  stout  canvas,  placed  under  the  animal-  and 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE 


153 


supported  from  above  by  means  of  a  chain  and  tackle,  so  that 
the  weight  of  the  animal  may  be  taken  off  its  limbs  and  still  be 
kept  in  an  upright  position.  It  is  rarely  advisable  to  attempt  to 
carry  the  entire  weight  of  the  horse.  The  sling  should  be  so 
placed  under  the  animal  that  he  can  settle  into  it  of  his  own  ac- 
cord. 

In  other  ailments,  when  the  horse  is  unable  to  lie  down  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time,  much  relief  may  often  be  had  by 


^2 

%\ 

A        m 

1 

Fig.  60.  —  A  Polo  Pony  of  Good  Form. 


arranging  a  "lean  to."  This  consists  of  supports  so  arranged 
that  the  horse  can  lean  up  against  or  settle  down  on  them  and 
thus  relieve  his  weight.  The  supports  in  a  "lean  to"  are 
placed  about  the  animal  much  like  shafts,  with  the  addition  of 
a  piece  across  in  front  for  the  chest,  and  another  cross-bar 
behind  for  the  haunches  to  rest  upon.  These  supports  should 
be   covered  with  cloths  or   blankets.     Animals   are  quick  to 


154  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

take  advantage  of  such  supports  and  will  get  much  relief  by 
leaning  against  them. 

ADMINISTERING  MEDICINE 

In  giving  medicine  the  rule  should  be  to  give  only  for  a  definite 
purpose.  This  rule  must  be  strictly  followed  or  more  ill  than 
good  will  result.  While  medicine  may  be  given  in  many  ways, 
we  will  discuss  only  a  few  of  the  more  simple,  such  as  drench- 
ing, hypodermic  medication,  external  medication,  and  enemas 
(or  injection  into  the  rectum),  and  counter-irritants. 

Drenching.  —  A  very  convenient  way  to  give  medicine  to  the 
horse  is  by  "  drenching."  The  medicines  are  first  dissolved  in 
water  or  other  suitable  liquid.  Just  enough  liquid  should  be 
added  thoroughly  to  dissolve  the  medicine,  as  more  than  this 
makes  the  drench  bulky  and  is  unnecessary.  Insoluble  medicine, 
if  not  irritant  or  corrosive,  may  be  given  simp] y  suspended  in  the 
water.  The  bottle  should  be  well  shaken  immediately  before 
giving  the  drench.  It  should  be  clean,  strong,  and  have 
a  smooth  long  neck.  The  head  of  the  horse  should  be  slightly 
elevated.  To  do  this,  place  a  loop  in  the  end  of  a  rope  and  in- 
troduce this  loop  into  the  mouth  just  behind  the  upper  front 
teeth,  then  place  the  free  end  over  a  beam  and  draw  the  head  up, 
not  too  high,  for  in  such  cases  the  horses  cannot  swallow.  Gradu- 
ally pour  the  medicine  into  the  horse's  mouth  at  the  corner.  If 
the  horse  strangles,  lower  his  head. 

Hypodermic  medication.  —  Medicines  are  frequently  given  by 
the  hypodermic  syringe  under  the  skin.  In  this  method  much 
smaller  quantities  of  medicine  are  required  to  produce  given 
effects  than  when  given  by  the  mouth,  there  is  less  liability  to 
waste,  and  the  action  of  the  medicine  is  much  more  rapid  and 
certain.  The  use  of  the  hypodermic  syringe,  however,  requires 
more  skill,  and  one  should  understand  it  thoroughly  before  at- 
tempting to  use  it.  The  medicine  should  be  sufficiently  diluted, 
otherwise  it  will  injure  the  tissue  and  cause  severe  pain.     It  must 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE  155 

be  free  from  sediment  and  germs.  When  all  is  ready,  the  syringe 
should  be  taken  in  the  right  hand ;  the  skin  in  the  region  of  the 
neck  and  shoulder  is  firmly  grasped  with  the  left,  and  with 
the  right  the  needle  is  quickly  pushed  through  in  a  slanting 
direction  and  the  medicine  injected  into  the  loose  tissue  beneath 
the  skin.  In  older  animals  or  those  with  tough  skin  considerable 
force  is  required  to  push  the  needle  through  the  skin.  It  is 
of  greatest  importance  that  the  instrument  be  perfectly  clean 
and  sterile,  otherwise  infection  may  be  introduced  along  with 
the  medicine. 

External  medication.  —  Medicine  is  often  administered  to  the 
horse  by  applying  to,  or  rubbing  on,  the  skin,  in  the  form  of 
liniments,  ointments,  lotions,  or  salves.  Applications  are  also 
made  in  the  form  of  poultices  and  bathing.  Liniments,  of 
which  there  are  many  kinds,  are  solutions  containing  some  irri- 
tating substance  such  as  ammonia  or  turpentine.  They  should 
never  be  applied  to  fresh  wounds  or  sores,  but  are  useful  in 
chronic  cases  of  inflammation.  Liniment  is  often  mixed  with  oil 
and  applied  to  the  part  by  rubbing.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
to  apply  too  frequently  or  rub  too  hard,  as  it  will  blister  the  part. 

Ointments,  of  which  there  are  many  kinds  available,  are  medi- 
cines mixed  with  waxy  material  and  are  used  to  soften,  soothe, 
and  heal  inflamed  parts.  Blisters  are  ointments  containing 
irritating  substance,  and  are  used  to  reduce  inflammation. 
Lotions  are  medicines  in  solution  and  are  used  to  soothe,  cool, 
and  heal. 

Poultices  are  soft,  moist  substances.  They  should  be  applied 
hot,  but  should  not  remain  long,  as  the  tissues  become  soft  and 
flabby.  Poultices  are  applied  to  soften  and  soothe  and  are  very 
useful  to  relieve  severe  inflammation.  In  old  chronic  sores  they 
soften  the  tissues,  arrest  the  irritation,  and  hasten  recovery. 
They  should  be  changed  frequently;  and  a  part  should  seldom  be 
poulticed  for  more  than  forty-eight  hours  continuously.  There 
are  many  substances  used  in  making  poultices,  chief  of  which  are 


156  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

flaxseed  meal,  bran,  bread  and  milk,  and  mashed  boiled  turnips. 
Whatever  the  substance,  it  should  be  clean,  soft,  and  capable  of 
retaining  heat  and  moisture.  To  keep  them  clean  and  sweet, 
add  a  teaspoonful  of  carbolic  acid  to  a  pint  of  poultice. 

Bathing  the  parts  in  hot  or  cold  water  often  proves  very  bene- 
ficial. The  application  should  continue  for  fifteen  minutes  to 
half  an  hour.  When  warmed,  it  may  be  as  hot  as  can  be  com- 
fortably borne.  The  bathing  should  take  place  two  or  three 
times  a  day.  It  is  much  used  and  with  good  results  in  lessen- 
ing inflammation,  pain,  and  swelling  of  recent  injuries,  and  the 
like. 

Enemas,  or  injections,  into  the  rectum.  —  Medicines  are  given 
by  injections  into  the  rectum  when  they  cannot  be  given  by  the 
mouth ;  when  they  are  not  retained  by  the  stomach ;  when  it 
is  desired  to  empty  the  bowels  ;  to  destroy  small  worms  infecting 
the  large  bowels  ;  and  to  stimulate  action.  Foods  may  also  be 
given  in  this  way.  Six  to  eight  quarts  of  warm  water  is  suffi- 
cient for  an  adult  horse,  and  if  to  this  is  added  a  half  teacupful 
of  pure  glycerine,  much  better  results  will  be  obtained.  In- 
jections are  best  given  by  means  of  a  rubber  hose  four  feet 
long  to  which  a  funnel  is  attached.  Oil  the  hose,  insert  gently 
into  the  rectum  about  two  feet,  then  pour  the  liquid  into  the 
funnel  and  by  raising  it  above  the  animal,  it  will  force  itself 
into  the  bowels. 

Counter-irritants.  —  This  is  a  class  of  practices  applied  for 
the  purpose  of  setting  up  a  local  and  artificial  inflammation  in 
order  to  cure  or  counteract  a  disease  or  injury.  Their  appli- 
cation requires  some  skill  and  much  experience.  The  counter- 
irritants  most  used  are  liniments,  blisters,  and  burning  with  a 
hot  iron  or  "  firing." 

Blisters.  —  Two  substances  are  commonly  used  for  blisters : 
pulverized  Spanish  flies  makes  "  fly-blister, "  and  the  biniodide 
of  mercury  makes  " red-blister."  Both  are  poisonous  and  should 
be  cared  for  accordingly.     They  are  made  by  mixing  one  part 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE  157 

by  weight  of  the  drug  to  eight  parts  of  fresh  lard  or  vaseline. 
For  ordinary  use  the  fly-blister  is  preferred,  but  to  remove  a 
bunch,  the  red-blister  is  most  used. 

Clip  the  hair  from  the  area,  then  rub  in  blister  with  a  cob 
from  three  to  ten  minutes,  depending  on  the  severeness  of  the 
irritation  and  the  thickness  of  the  skin.  As  a  rule  a  light  blister 
repeated  is  more  effective  than  a  single  severe  one.  9  Much  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  horse  does  not  succeed  in  scatter- 
ing the  blister.  To  this  end  his  head  and  tail  should  be  so  tied 
that  the  animal  cannot  reach  the  substance.  After  twenty- 
four  to  thirty-six  hours,  or  when  a  watery,  gummy  fluid 
exudes  from  the  skin,  the  area  should  be  thoroughly  washed 
with  warm  water  and  soap,  then  wiped  dry,  and  greased  with 
fresh  lard  or  vaseline. 

Mustard  plasters  are  often  used  when  large  surfaces  must  be 
treated,  as  in  pleurisy,  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  and  a  few 
other  diseases.  This  plaster  is  made  by  stirring  up  finely  ground 
mustard  with  warm  water  into  a  thin  paste,  then  applied  to  the 
area  and  rubbed  in  well  with  a  cob  or  stick.  Mustard  will  prove 
more  satisfactory  than  fly-blisters  when  large  areas  are  to  be 
"treated,  as  the  latter  often  irritates  the  kidneys,  and  as  a  result 
there  is  painful  passage  of  the  urine.  When  such  symptoms 
appear,  the  fly-blister  should  be  washed  off  and  the  part 
greased. 

Firing.  —  This  consists  in  burning  the  skin  with  a  red  hot  iron. 
The  firing-iron  is  rather  heavy  so  as  to  hold  heat,  but  has 
a  sharp  point.  Firing  is  used  to  remove  bunches,  ring-bones, 
spavins,  and  the  like.  The  hair  is  clipped  from  the  area,  the 
irons  heated  in  a  stove,  the  horse  is  blindfolded,  a  twist  applied 
to  the  nose,  and  the  opposite  foot  is  lifted  and  in  this  way  the 
one  to  be  operated  on  is  confined.  At  first  the  skin  is  barely 
touched  and  the  lines  marked,  then  the  lines  are  burned  to  a  good 
russet  brown  by  drawing  the  hot  irons  through  the  former  lines. 
A  fly-blister  is  then  rubbed  on  the  fired  area  and  the  case  treated 


158  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

as  for  blistering.     The  horse  should  be  given  plenty  of  time 
to  recover  before  being  put  to  work. 

There  are  two  methods  of  firing  in  common  use  :  One  consists 
of  making  a  number  of  parallel  lines,  and  is  known  as  "line- 
firing."  The  other  consists  in  burning  a  number  of  little  holes 
over  the  part  to  be  treated,  and  is  known  as  "point-firing."  It 
is  held  that  point-firing  sets  up  a  deeper  inflammation.  Oc- 
casionally both  methods  are  combined,  and  after  the  line-firing 
a  few  points  are  made  over  the  most  diseased  part. 

LAMENESS  :    ITS    CAUSE    AND    TREATMENT 

The  horse  is  used  largely  for  locomotive  power.  Anything 
that  interferes  with  his  travel  and  pull  materially  lessens  his 
usefulness.  Of  all  farm  animals,  the  horse  is  the  most  exposed 
to  accidents  and  injuries  leading  to  lameness.  Lameness  inter- 
feres with  his  usefulness  more  than  with  that  of  any  other  farm 
animal.  A  lame  horse  cannot  work,  whereas  a  lame  cow  may 
give  as  much  milk,  a  lame  pig  take  on  fat,  and  a  lame  sheep 
shear  as  much  wool  as  though  it  were  sound.  The  causes  of 
lameness  among  horses  are  numerous  and  varied.  Only  a  few 
of  the  more  important  are  discussed  here,  as  a  complete  list 
would  fill  a  volume. 

Lameness  due  to  ailments  of  the  bones 

The  bones  of  the  horse's  legs  are  particularly  subject  to 
ailments  causing  lameness;  this  is  especially  true  of  the  bones 
below  the  knees  and  hocks.  The  most  important  ailments  of 
the  bones  likely  to  cause  lameness  are  splints,  ring-bones, 
side-bones,  bone-spavin,  bony  enlargements,  and  fractures  of 
the  bone. 

Splints,  ring-bones,  side-bones,  bone-spavin,  and  bony  enlarge- 
ments.—  These  ailments  are  caused  by  severe  strains,  concus- 
sion, blows  and  hurts ;  by  poorly  kept  hoofs ;  and  by  certain 
diseases  of  the  foot  as  corns,  cracks,  quittor,  and  the  like. 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE 


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160  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  treatment  is  to  let  them  alone  as  long  as  the  horse 
suffers  no  inconvenience.  If  slightly  lame,  remove  shoes  and 
give  rest.  If  lameness  persists,  try  cold  water  bath  and  hand- 
rub  thoroughly ;  then  try  astringent  lotion.  If  still  lame,  try 
tincture  of  iodine.  Paint  on  twice  daity  until  skin  becomes 
sore,  then  withhold  a  few  days.  If  still  lame,  try  Spanish-fly 
or  red-blister.  Lastly,  the  firing-irons  may  be  resorted  to. 
Such  operations  should  be  performed  only  by  those  familiar 
with  the  work. 

Fracture.  —  A  fracture  is  a  break  in  a  bone.  Fractures  are 
caused  by  blows,  falls,  collisions,  and  the  like,  as  well  as  by  sud- 
den muscular  contractions  such  as  a  violent  effort  to  move  a  load, 
a  quick  jump,  a  sudden  stop  or  too  sudden  start,  and  like  causes. 

The  treatment  of  fractured  bones  consists  in  replacing  the 
broken  bones  in  their  natural  position  and  keeping  them  there 
without  movement  until  they  grow  fast  together.  This  is  easiest 
accomplished  by  covering  with  two  layers  of  flannel  bandages, 
smoothly  applied.  Over  this  bandage  place  thin  strips  of  wood, 
or  other  light  material,  so  as  to  hold  the  bones  in  place,  then  bind 
with  bandages.  These  wooden  strips  or  splints  should  be  as  long 
as  convenient.  In  the  place  of  splints,  plaster  of  Paris  bandages 
can  often  be  used  to  advantage.  Such  bandages  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  drug  store  or  made  from  cheese  cloth  and  plas- 
ter of  Paris.  After  applying  splints,  they  should  be  carefully 
watched  to  see  that  they  do  not  shut  off  the  circulation  below 
the  break.  If  the  horse  is  to  be  maintained  in  a  standing  posi- 
tion, a  sling  and  "lean  to"  must  be  supplied  to  rest  the  animal. 

Lameness  due  to  ailments  of  the  joints 

There  are  three  classes  of  injuries  due  to  ailments  of  the  joints. 
These  are,  affections  of  the  synovial  sacs  of  the  joint  structures, 
or  of  the  bones  and  their  articular  surface,  and  dislocations  of  the 
joints.     The  most  important  ailments  of  the  joints  likely  to 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE  161 

cause  lameness  are  wind-galls  or  wind-puffs ;    bog,  blood,  and 
occult  spavin,  and  thoroughpin. 

Wind-galls,  blood-spavin,  bog-spavin,  and  thoroughpin.  — 
Wind-galls  usually  occur  between  tendons  where  small  sacs, 
containing  synovial  fluid  or  joint-oil,  are  situated  to  lubricate 
the  tendons  as  they  play  over  each  other.  They  appear  in  the 
form  of  soft  and  somewhat  rounded  or  elongated  puffs  of  vary- 
ing size.  They  may  be  located  on  either  side  of  the  leg.  Usually 
wind-galls  are  painless  and  cause  lameness  only  under  certain 
conditions.  In  rare  cases  they  solidify  into  hard  masses.  The 
blood-spavin  is  situated  in  front  and  on  the  inside  of  the  hock. 
It  is  merely  a  dilated  condition  of  the  vein  and  is  soft  and  yield- 
ing to  pressure.  The  bog-spavin  is  a  round,  smooth,  well-de- 
fined puff  situated  in  front  and  a  little  inward  of  the  hock. 
On  pressure  it  disappears  from  this  joint  to  reappear  on  the  out- 
side and  just  behind  the  hock.  Thoroughpin  is  found  at  the 
back  and  on  the  top  of  the  hock  in  the  part  known  as  the  "  hol- 
lows "just  behind  the  shank  bone.  These  rarely  cause  lameness, 
but  may  under  certain  conditions.     They  are  rather  unsightly. 

These  ailments  are  usually  due  to  strains  and  overexertions. 
In  colts  they  may  disappear.  The  treatment  is  to  cause  the 
puff  to  be  absorbed.  Rest,  cold  water  baths,  followed  by  hand- 
rubbing,  will  usually  bring  about  the  desired  result.  If  they 
persist,  paint  with  tincture  of  iodine  twice  daily  until  sore. 
Later  try  a  dull  red-blister,  but  never  a  sharp  one. 

Lameness  due  to  ailments  of  muscles  and  tendons 

Diseases  and  ailments  of  the  muscles  and  tendons  are  a  fre- 
quent cause  of  lameness  among  horses,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  sprains,  shoulder  lameness,  hip  lameness,  knuckling, 
sprung  knees  and  curb. 

Sprains  is  the  name  applied  to  the  injury  of  the  muscles, 
tendons,  or  ligaments  whereby  their  fibers  slip  or  yield.  It  is 
very  common,  as  none  of  the  muscles  or  tendons  are  exempt 

M 


162  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

from  liability  to  sprains.  Severe  lameness  usually  comes  on 
suddenly  after  the  injury.  The  parts  become  inflamed,  swollen, 
and  tender. 

The  usual  cause  of  a  sprain  is  external  violence,  such  as  a  fall 
or  a  powerful  exertion  of  strength  and  sudden  twisting  and 
bending  of  the  joints. 

The  treatment  depends  on  the  conditions.  If  there  is  severe 
pain,  hot  baths  will  soften,  soothe,  and  relax  the  part.  If  there 
is  much  inflammation,  cold  baths  will  prove  beneficial.  The 
animal  should  be  given  rest  and  kept  quiet;  hence  the  box 
stall  is  preferable  in  this  case  to  the  pasture.  If  the  lameness 
persists,  apply  liniment  and  perhaps  fly-blisters. 

Shoulder  lameness,  the  result  of  a  sprain,  is  of  common  occur- 
rence. It  is  by  the  shoulder  that  the  horse  does  his  work,  and 
for  this  reason  the  part  is  particularly  exposed  to  injury. 

It  would  be  difficult  and  not  worth  while  to  name  all  the 
forms  of  violence  by  which  the  shoulder  may  be  injured. 
The  chief  causes  are  falls,  violent  efforts  in  starting  heavy 
loads,  balling  the  feet  with  snow,  and  colliding  with  other 
objects. 

If  not  severe,  time  and  rest  will  cure.  When  there  is  pain 
and  swelling,  bathe  in  hot  water  for  half  an  hour  three  times 
daily  and  apply  some  astringent  lotion.  Warm  wet  blankets 
are  of  great  service.  Anodyne  liniments,  camphor,  belladonna, 
either  in  the  form  of  tinctures  or  oils,  are  beneficial.  Lastly,  try 
dull  blisters. 

Sweeny  shoulder  is  a  rapid  wasting  away  of  certain  muscles 
on  the  outside  of  the  shoulder-blade.  While  met  with  in  horses 
of  any  age,  it  is  more  common  in  young  animals.  If  neglected, 
it  ruins  the  animal. 

Sweeny  is  caused  by  straining,  by  severe  pulling,  and  by 
jerking  movements.  Idle  horses  when  put  to  work  are  most 
liable.  The  nerves  or  blood  vessels  of  the  affected  part  seem 
to  be  injured  by  the  pressure  of  the  collar. 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE  163 

The  treatment  is  to  remove  the  cause.  Rest  the  horse  if  pos- 
sible ;  if  not,  procure  a  perfect  fitting  collar.  Rub  and  manip- 
ulate the  skin  and  muscle.  Later  apply  a  mild  liniment,  and 
hand  rub.  Two  months  should  be  allowed  for  a  complete  cure. 
Light  fly-blisters  three  weeks  apart  may  be  used. 

Sore  shoulders  and  neck,  and  galls  are  of  frequent  occurrence 
among  horses  and  are  due  to  poorly  fitting  collars  and  harness 
as  well  as  to  certain  kinds  of  work  when  the  load  borne  by  the 
neck  is  great. 

The  remedy  is  to  remove  the  cause.  Keep  the  parts  dry. 
Wash  in  cold  or  hot  water,  depending  on  conditions,  three  times 
daily,  and  apply  white  lotion.  If  nothing  else  is  at  hand,  and 
the  galls  not  bad,  wash  the  parts  in  hot  or  cold  salt  water. 
Dust  on  finely  pulverized  air-slaked  lime.  Oxide  of  zinc  oint- 
ment is  good.  If  the  parts  become  calloused,  apply  a  dull  red- 
blister,  which  will  absorb  the  callous.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
give  the  animal  rest  while  applying  the  blister. 

Curb  is  a  thickening  or  bulging  of  the  ligament  on  the  back 
part  of  the  hock,  and  just  below  the  point,  giving  the  cannon 
a  curved,  protruding  outline.  A  curb  is  easily  noted  when 
viewed  from  the  side. 

The  cause  may  be  a  sprain  of  the  tendon  which  passes  over 
the  back  part  of  the  hock.  Hocks  of  certain  conformation,  such 
as  overbent,  coarse,  thick,  or  those  too  narrow,  are  liable  to 
this  ailment.  The  tendency  seems  to  be  hereditary  (see  dis- 
cussion in  Chapter  IV). 

The  treatment  for  curb  is  to  give  cold  bath  on  the  first 
appearance  of  inflammation.  Allow  the  animal  to  rest.  Shoe 
the  foot  of  the  affected  leg  with  high-heeled  shoe.  This  will 
raise  the  heel  and  slacken  the  ligament.  Apply  ointments  of 
iodine.  Later  the  application  of  dull  red-blister  repeated  in 
two  or  three  weeks  may  prove  beneficial.  In  cases  in  which 
animals  have  a  natural  curby  hock  and  it  does  not  cause  lame- 
ness, it  is  best  to  let  it  alone. 


164  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Lameness  due  to  capped-elbows  or  shoe-boils 

Capped  joints  and  shoe-boils  first  appear  as  a  soft,  flabby 
bag  containing  a  little  watery  fluid. 

Capped-elbows  are  caused  by  the  irritation  due  to  the  horse 
lying  on  the  shoe  when  the  foot  is  bent  back  under  the  body. 

The  treatment  of  capped-elbows  is  to  devise  a  means  for  its 
prevention.  This  is  often  difficult.  The  horse  should  be  well 
bedded.  If  the  heels  of  the  shoe  protrude,  they  should  be 
shortened.  A  good  method  of  preventing  a  horse  from  lying 
on  the  heel  of  the  shoe  is  to  fasten  a  piece  of  wood,  say  two  by 
six  inches,  across  the  stall  about  one  foot  back  of  where  the 
horse  usually  stands.  This  prevents  the  animal  from  doubling 
his  fore  feet  back  under  the  body  when  lying  down. 

Capped-knee  is  an  enlargement  on  the  front  of  the  knee  and 
is  somewhat  similar  to  a  capped-elbow.  Capped-knees  may 
prove  a  great  source  of  annoyance  because  of  the  unsightly 
blemish  they  constitute. 

While  there  may  be  many  causes  of  capped-knees,  they  are 
most  common  among  horses  addicted  to  the  habit  of  pawing 
while  in  the  stable  and  striking  the  front  of  the  stalls  with  their 
knees,  and  among  naturally  weak-kneed  animals  which  are  sub- 
ject to  falling  and  thus  bruising  their  knees  on  the  ground. 

The  treatment  is  first  of  all  to  remove  the  cause.  This,  of 
course,  cannot  be  accomplished  among  animals  with  weak 
knees,  and  this  class  is  difficult  to  treat.  The  enlargements  can 
be  reduced  in  size  by  hot  baths  and  by  rubbing  with  liniment. 
A  warm  poultice  of  oil-meal  or  ground  flaxseed  enveloping  the 
entire  joint  and  held  in  place  by  bandages  is  often  followed  by 
an  absorption  of  the  enlargement. 

Capped-hock  is  an  enlargement  of  the  point  of  the  hock  and  is 
somewhat  similar  to  capped  elbows  and  knees.  It  is  commonly 
caused  either  by  the  horse  lying  on  the  hock  or  by  irritation  due 
to  the  repeated  hitting  of  the  hock  against  a  whiffle-tree  or 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE  165 

similar  object.     The  treatment  should  be  much  the  same  as  that 
suggested  above  for  capped-knees. 

The  shoe-boil  should  receive  attention.  It  should  be  bathed 
in  hot  water  twice  daily,  followed  by  a  stimulating  liniment  well 
rubbed  on  the  parts.  In  some  cases,  however,  astringents  are 
used  in  the  form  of  poultices  or  pastes.  An  excellent  astringent 
for  such  cases  is  a  putty  made  of  powdered  chalk  and  vinegar, 

L4 


Fig.   62.  —  Standard   Bred   Carriage   Stallion   "Carmon  '  at  the   Head 
of  the  Government  Stud  at  Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

and  the  entire  swelling  is  then  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of 
soft  clay  made  into  a  mass  with  water.  This  will  dry  and  fall 
off,  after  which  it  should  be  reapplied. 

Lameness  due  to  ailments  of  the  foot 

Since  the  value  of  a  horse  depends  largely  upon  his  ability 
to  do  labor,  which  in  turn  depends  largely  on  the  condition  of 
his  feet,  it  is,  therefore,  important  that  the  feet  be  kept  sound ; 


166  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  to  accomplish  this  end  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  know  how 
to  cure  ailments  to  which  they  are  liable,  but,  better  still,  how 
to  prevent  them. 

Interfering.  —  This  is  the  name  given  to  the  condition  when 
one  foot  strikes  the  opposite  leg  while  traveling.  The  inner 
surface  of  the  fetlock  joint  is  the  part  most  subject  to  this  injury, 
although  it  may  happen  along  the  cannon,  when  it  is  usually 
called  "  speedy  cuts."  The  hind  legs  are  more  liable  than  the 
fore  legs.  As  a  result  of  interfering  the  skin  and  deeper  tissues 
are  bruised,  which  often  causes  lameness  and  thickening  of  the 
injured  parts.  It  is  often  caused  by  faulty  conformation ;  from 
the  feet  growing  too  long ;  from  defective  shoeing ;  from  rough 
or  slippery  roads;  from  exhaustion;  from  high  knee  action; 
from  fast  work ;  and  because  the  chest  or  hips  are  too  narrow. 
The  treatment  is  often  difficult,  and  perhaps  impossible  when 
due  to  deformity  or  faulty  conformation.  When  due  to  fatigue, 
fetlock-  and  ankle-boots  may  be  used.  Proper  shoeing  will  often 
prevent  interfering.  The  outside  heel  and  quarter  of  the  foot 
on  the  injured  leg  should  be  lowered  enough  to  change  the  posi- 
tion of  the  fetlock  joint,  by  bringing  it  farther  away  from  the 
center,  thereby  permitting  the  other  foot  to  pass  by  without 
striking,  at  the  same  time  setting  the  shoe  that  is  causing  the 
injury  well  under  the  hoof. 

After  removing  the  cause,  apply  cold  water  bandage  to  the 
injured  parts  to  remove  the  soreness  and  swelling  in  recent 
cases.  In  older  cases,  when  the  parts  have  become  calloused 
from  long-continued  bruising,  apply  a  fly-blister  to  the  parts, 
repeating  in  three  weeks  if  necessary. 

Overreaching  is  the  condition  when  the  shoe  of  the  hind  foot 
strikes  and  injures  the  heel  or  quarter  of  the  fore  foot.  It 
seldom  occurs  except  when  the  horse  is  traveling  fast.  It  is 
most  common  in  trotting  and  running  horses.  Animals 
that  are  subject  to  overreaching  should  not  be  driven 
fast  without   quarter  boots.     It  can  sometimes  be  remedied 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE  167 

by  shoeing  treatment,  the  same  as  for  interfering  mentioned 
above. 

Calk  wounds.  —  These  are  wounds  near  the  top  of  the  hoof 
and  are  caused  by  sharp-shod  horses  either  trampling  on  them- 
selves or  on  each  other.  Heavy  draft  horses  are  more  subject 
than  lighter  ones,  and  the  fore  feet  more  liable  to  injury  than 
the  hind  ones,  though  they  often  result  in  the  hind  feet  from  the 
horse  resting  one  foot  on  top  of  the  other.  The  treatment  is  the 
use  of  boots  properly  to  protect  the  top  of  the  hoof,  and  shoeing 
the  foot  causing  the  injury  with  blunt  calks.  When  the  wound 
is  not  deep  and  soreness  slight,  cold  water  bandages  and  a  pro- 
tective dressing,  such  as  carbolized  vaseline,  will  be  all  that  is 
needed. 

Corns  result  from  bruises  of  the  sole.  They  occur  on  the  in- 
side half  of  the  sole  of  the  front  feet.  Corns  often  accompany 
weak  flat  feet,  and  often  result  from  poor  shoeing.  The  treat- 
ment is  to  discover  the  cause  and  if  possible  remove  it.  Give 
the  horse  rest.  Horses  subject  to  corns  should  be  shod  with 
wide-webbed  bar  shoes,  as  these  protect  the  foot.  As  to  a  cure, 
the  blood  or  pus  that  has  collected  needs  to  be  removed.  To  do 
this  cut  a  hole  through  the  sole  of  the  foot,  allowing  the  fluid  to 
escape.  Wash  in  warm  water  and  apply  a  5  per  cent  solution 
of  carbolic  acid,  turpentine  pure  or  white  lotion.  When  the 
discharge  has  ceased,  apply  pine  tar  to  the  opening  to  keep  out 
the  dirt. 

Punctured  wounds  of  the  foot.  —  The  foot  of  the  horse  is 
liable  to  wounds  made  by  some  sharp  object  puncturing  the  sole 
or  the  frog  and  injuring  the  soft  tissues.  Such  wounds  may 
become  serious  and  hence  should  receive  close  attention.  Te- 
tanus or  lockjaw  often  follows  such  wounds  in  the  horse.  Such 
wounds  are  caused  by  nails,  sharp  rocks,  glass,  wire,  and  the  like. 
They  often  cause  lameness.  The  treatment  is  first  of  all  to 
withdraw  the  object.  If  pus  and  blood  has  collected,  the  hole 
must  be  enlarged  to  facilitate  drainage  and  the  sole  washed  with 


168  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Where  there  is  much  sore- 
ness, the  foot  must  be  poulticed  for  a  day  or  two.  Keep  the 
horse  in  a  clean,  dry  stable,  as  otherwise  dirt  will  get  into  the 
wound. 

Cracked  hoofs.  —  Cracks  occur  in  the  wall  of  the  hoof.  They 
are  designated  by  three  names  depending  on  the  location.  A 
" quarter-crack"  is  when  the  crack  begins  at  the  top  of  the  hoof 
and  extends  downward  in  the  wall;  a  " sand-crack"  when  the 
crack  begins  at  the  bottom  and  extends  upward ;  a  " toe-crack" 
when  the  crack  is  in  the  front  of  the  hoof.  They  may  be  due 
to  severe  work,  injuries  at  the  top  of  the  hoof,  and  to  a  dry, 
weakened  condition  of  the  walls  of  the  hoof.  When  the  cracks 
extend  to  or  from  the  top  of  the  hoof,  they  may  cause  severe 
lameness.  As  the  horse  steps  the  hoof  spreads  and  the  soft 
tissues  are  pinched  in  the  crack.  Sand  and  gravel  may  get  into 
the  crack  thus  increasing  the  trouble.  The  treatment  is  to 
clean  out  the  crack  neatly.  If  " proud  flesh"  has  formed,  swab 
with  butter  of  antimony.  Wash  with  5  per  cent  solution  of 
carbolic  acid,  then  apply  pine  tar  to  keep  out  the  dirt  and  to 
aid  in  healing.  Draw  crack  together  by  shoeing  nails  driven 
across  the  crack  and  clinched.  Small  clips  can  be  procured 
for  this  purpose.     The  hoof  should  be  kept  well  oiled. 

DISEASES   OF   THE    LEGS 

Scratches  is  an  inflammation  of  the  skin,  especially  in  the 
region  of  the  heels,  and  by  some  is  called  " grease  heel."  This 
ailment  is  usually  due  to  mud  and  filth.  The  hind  heels  being 
more  exposed  to  the  manure  are  more  subject.  The  treatment 
is  to  clean  the  parts.  First  clip  the  hair  close  to  the  skin,  bathe 
in  warm  water,  then  apply  a  warm  poultice  of  scalded  bran  or 
linseed  meal,  changing  twice  in  twenty-four  hours.  After  scabs 
are  removed  wash,  wipe  dry,  and  apply  an  antiseptic  as  boric 
acid,  dusting  into  the  sores,  then  cover  with  some  oily  dressing 
as  vaseline,  glycerine,  castor  oil,  or  fresh  lard. 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE  169 

Mud  fever  is  an  inflammation  of  the  skin  of  the  legs.  It  is 
caused  by  the  irritation  of  the  mud  and  water  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  and  occasionally  by  spattering  urine  against  the  fore  legs  in 
the  case  of  geldings.  The  treatment  is  to  keep  the  parts  clean. 
Clip  the  hair,  cleanse  by  washing  with  tar  soap,  wipe  dry,  then 
rub  with  vaseline,  castor  oil,  or  glycerine. 

Eczema  is  an  inflammation  of  the  skin.  It  usually  occurs 
among  horses  in  good  flesh,  especially  in  the  spring  when  the  hair 
is  long.  It  is  characterized  by  small  eruptive  blisters  that  dis- 
charge a  gummy  substance.  This  dries  about  the  roots  of  the 
hair,  causing  intense  itching,  especially  when  the  animal  sweats. 
The  treatment  is  to  clip  the  hair,  cleanse  by  washing  with  tar 
soap,  wipe  dry,  then  rub  the  skin  with  some  bland  oil  as  vaseline, 
glycerine,  or  castor  oil,  or  better  still,  oxide  of  zinc  ointment. 

DISEASES    OF   THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGANS 

In  considering  ailments  of  the  digestive  organs,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  by  far  the  greater  number  of  these  difficulties 
are  due  to  improper  food  or  to  careless  feeding.  Hence  in  the 
treatment  of  the  various  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs,  the 
method  of  feeding  as  well  as  the  kind  of  food  should  receive 
careful  attention. 

Ailments  of  the  mouth 

The  mouth  is  subject  to  many  injuries  which  may  have  a 
serious  effect  upon  mastication  and  digestion.  When  the  horse 
does  not  masticate  his  food,  the  mouth  should  be  closely  ex- 
amined. 

Sore  mouth  may  result  from  irritating  foods,  injuries,  and 
germs  of  diseases,  from  severe  bits  and  irregular  or  diseased 
teeth,  also  from  vicious  habits.  The  treatment  is  to  locate 
the  cause  and  remove  it.  Wash  the  mouth  thoroughly  with 
warm  water,  then  apply  three  times  daily  a  healing  lotion,  such 
as  a  strong  solution  of  alum.     Do  not  use  poisonous  remedies. 


170  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  horse  should  be  fed  soft  foods,  such  as  gruels  and 
mashes. 

Abnormal  and  diseased  teeth.  —  The  outer  edges  of  the  upper, 
and  the  inner  edges  of  the  lower,  back  teeth  may  become  sharp 
and  cut  the  cheeks  or  tongue.  With  a  guarded  rasp,  remove 
the  sharp  points,  taking  care  not  to  rasp  the  grinding  surface  of 
the  teeth. 

Decayed,  ulcered,  split,  and  broken  teeth  should  be  removed. 
This  should  be  done  with  forceps.  Never  punch  teeth  out  if 
it  can  be  avoided,  as  the  tooth  is  likely  to  be  broken  and  some 
of  the  pieces  remain  in  the  jaw  where  they  cannot  be  removed, 
and  thus  cause  much  trouble.  Occasionally,  however,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  cut  a  hole  through  the  jaw  bone  and  punch  the 
tooth  out.  In  all  cases  the  opposite  tooth  should  be  filed  off 
at  least  once  a  year. 

Lampas  is  a  swelling  of  the  mucous  membrane  covering  the  top 
of  the  mouth.  It  is  caused  by  some  irritation  of  the  mouth, 
and  is  more  troublesome  at  teething  time,  after  which  it  will 
disappear.  The  treatment  is  to  remove  the  cause  when  pos- 
sible. In  very  bad  cases  a  few  pricks  with  a  suture  needle, 
then  bathing  the  mouth  in  alum  water,  will  prove  helpful.  If 
the  mouth  is  pricked,  the  horse  should  be  fed  on  soft  food  for 
a  time.  In  mild  cases  the  feeding  of  ear  corn  will  suffice. 
Burning  lampas  is  cruel  and  injurious  and  should  never  be 
tolerated. 

Ailments  of  the  throat  and  gullet 

Diseases  and  derangements  of  these  organs  are  not  common 
except  choking,  the  result  of  the  introduction  of  foreign  bodies 
or  of  giving  some  irritating  medicine. 

Choking  is  the  closing  of  the  gullet  with  some  foreign  body. 
It  often  happens  when  the  animal  attempts  to  swallow  an 
apple  or  turnip  and  similar  objects  without  crushing  them. 
Some  horses  choke  from  feeding  too  rapidly.     The  treatment  is 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE  171 

to  remove  the  object  by  getting  it  up  if  possible;  if  not,  by 
pushing  it  down.  If  the  object  is  in  the  beginning  of  the  gullet, 
it  can  be  worked  up.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  mouth- 
gag  in  the  horse's  mouth  to  protect  the  hand,  then  as  some  one 
presses  upward  and  forward  on  the  object  from  the  outside  of 
the  gullet,  pass  the  hand  into  the  mouth  and  if  possible,  with- 
draw the  offending  object.  It  may  require  some  effort  to  work 
the  object  up  in  this  way,  but  it  should  be  done  if  possible.  If 
all  attempts  to  work  the  object  up  fail,  then  it  should  be  pushed 
down  with  a  probang,  —  a  smooth,  flexible  tube  or  rod.  A  piece 
of  three-fourth  inch  rubber  hose  is  good. 

Ailments  of  the  stomach  and  intestines 

Because  of  the  small  size  of  the  horse's  stomach,  it  is  often 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  diseases  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines.  While  the  stomach  and  intestines  of  the  horse  are 
subject  to  a  great  many  ailments,  we  shall  discuss  only  the 
more  important,  which  are  indigestion,  colic,  diarrhea,  and  con- 
stipation. 

Indigestion  is  one  of  the  most  common  ailments  of  the  diges- 
tive organs  among  horses.  It  may  be  due  to  both  the  stomach 
and  small  intestines  failing  to  digest  the  food  properly.  Some 
of  the  more  important  causes  are  the  feeding  of  indigestible  food, 
improper  feeding,  bad  teeth,  which  prevent  proper  mastication 
of  food,  hard  work  immediately  after  feeding,  and  any  cause 
that  profoundly  disturbs  the  system.  It  may  occur  in  either 
mild  or  acute  form.  If  the  attack  is  mild,  the  animal  refuses 
his  food,  lies  down,  and  immediately  after  gets  up,  looks  toward 
the  flanks,  and  frequently  paws  the  ground.  In  such  cases  the 
treatment  is  not  difficult.  Give  the  stomach  and  intestines  a 
few  days'  rest  in  which  to  recuperate,  feeding  only  a  light  laxa- 
tive diet,  such  as  bran  mashes  and  fresh  grass.  Drench  the 
horse  with  two  ounces  of  Jamaica  ginger,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of 
fairly  hot  water,  three  times  daily.     In  acute  indigestion  the 


172 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


animal  suffers  much  pain.  The  symptoms  are  much  the  same. 
The  animal,  lying  down  frequently,  paws  the  ground,  looks 
towards  the  flanks,  stands  stretched  out,  and  shows  evidence 
of  the  pain  he  is  suffering.  Treat  much  the  same  as  for  mild 
indigestion,  but  repeat  the  Jamaica  ginger  drench  every  three 
hours.  If  there  is  much  pain,  an  ounce  of  laudanum  may  be 
given  three  times  daily. 


Fig.  63.  —  An  American  Trotting  Bred  Carriage  Horse  possessing  Good 

Form  and  Stylish  Action. 


Colic.  —  This  term  is  often  loosely  applied  to  almost  any 
ailment  of  the  digestive  organs  that  is  accompanied  by  pain. 
For  our  purpose  we  shall  consider  it  under  two  forms :  spas- 
modic or  cramp  colic,  and  flatulent  or  wind  colic. 

Spasmodic  colic  is  a  violent  and  painful  contraction  of  the 
coats  of  the  intestines.  It  is  caused  by  some  irritant  in  the 
intestines,  such  as  undigested  food,  large  amounts  of  cold  water 
when  the  horse  is  tired  and  warm,  sudden  changes  in  the  food, 
such  as  changing  from  dry  to  green  food,  and  similar  changes. 
The  pain  is  severe  and  often  comes  on  suddenly.     The  horse 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE  173 

stops  suddenly,  looks  towards  the  flanks,  stretches,  and  strains 
as  if  trying  to  pass  urine,  paws  the  ground,  kicks  at  his  belly, 
throws  himself  down,  and  rolls.  He  sweats,  and  the  respiration 
and  pulse  are  increased  in  rapidity.  After  a  time  the  pain 
ceases,  only  to  be  renewed  by  another  attack  in  a  few  minutes. 
The  treatment  is  to  get  the  horse  into  a  comfortable  place 
where  he  can  roll  without  injury.  Inject  into  the  rectum  eight 
quarts  of  warm  water,  containing  half  a  teacupful  of  glycerine. 
This  should  be  injected  slowly  so  as  to  allow  the  animal  to  retain 
it  as  long  as  possible.  Drench  with  two-ounce  doses  of  Jamaica 
ginger  as  in  indigestion.  Sweet  spirits  of  niter  in  ounce  doses  is 
also  good,  as  is  a  tablespoonful  of  common  baking  soda  dis- 
solved in  warm  water.  To  relieve  the  pain,  give  one  ounce  of 
laudanum  and  half  an  ounce  of  spirits  of  camphor  mixed  in  half 
a  pint  of  water.  Rubbing  the  belly  vigorously  also  relieves 
the  pain,  as  do  blankets  rung  out  of  hot  water  and  applied  to 
the  belly. 

In  flatulent  or  "wind"  colic  the  pain  comes  on  more  gradu- 
ally and  is  continuous.  The  pain  is  due  to  the  accumulation  of 
gas  in  the  stomach  and  intestines,  resulting  from  the  fermenting 
of  food.  Sometimes  the  pain  is  severe,  other  times  it  is  not. 
The  large  intestines  are  often  extended  with  gas;  in  fact  the 
bloating  may  be  severe  enough  to  interfere  with  the  horse's 
breathing.  The  animal  acts  much  the  same  as  in  spasmodic 
colic.  He  often  attempts  to  lie  on  the  back  as  this  seems  to 
favor  passing  of  the  gas.  The  treatment  is  much  the  same  as 
in  spasmodic  or  cramp  colic. 

Diarrhea  or  scouring.  —  This  is  an  effort  of  nature  to  remove 
some  irritant  from  the  bowels.  The  discharges  are  frequent, 
the  matter  thin  and  watery,  and  often  characterized  by  a  very 
foul-smelling  odor.  Often  there  is  severe  straining.  Diarrhea 
may  be  caused  by  overfeeding,  by  bad  food,  by  sudden  changes 
in  the  food,  by  eating  too  rapidly,  by  drinking  bad  water,  and 
by  driving  immediately  after  feeding.     Again,  some  horses  are 


174  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

predisposed  to  diarrhea,  especially  when  driven  on  the  road. 
Since  diarrhea  is  caused  by  an  irritant,  the  treatment  is  first 
to  locate  the  cause  and  remove  it.  The  discharge  must  not  be 
checked  too  suddenly.  A  half  teacupful  of  castor  oil,  combined 
with  an  ounce  of  laudanum  and  given  as  a  drench  with  a  little 
linseed  gruel,  is  excellent.  Oak-bark  tea,  made  by  steeping  the 
inner  bark  of  white  oak,  is  good  for  persistent  cases.  A  teacup- 
ful of  this  tea  combined  with  an  ounce  of  laudanum  should  be 
given  as  a  drench  twice  daily.  Horses  that  are  subject  to 
diarrhea  while  on  the  road  should  be  watered  and  fed  as  long 
as  possible  before  put  to  work.  Water  sparingly  immediately 
before  and  during  the  drive. 

Constipation  is  the  opposite  to  diarrhea.  The  discharge  is 
not  frequent,  the  matter  hard  and  dry  and  often  passed  with 
much  effort.  The  causes  are  rather  numerous  and  varied. 
Constipation  may  be  due  to  bad  food,  lack  of  exercise,  insuffi- 
cient water,  improper  feeding,  and  is  often  due  to  other  dis- 
eases. The  treatment  is  to  reach  the  cause  and  remove  it, 
then  feed  laxative  foods,  such  as  thin  bran  mashes,  linseed 
gruels,  and  if  possible,  green  grass.  Injections  of  warm  water 
and  glycerine  are  good  to  empty  the  bowels.  If  the  ailment 
persists,  give  small  doses  cf  castor  oil  or  raw  linseed  oil,  say 
one  pint,  and  if  this  is  not  effective,  repeat.  This  is  more  satis- 
factory than  one  large  dose. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    RESPIRATORY    ORGANS 

The  stable  is  the  source  of  many  respiratory  ailments.  Poorly 
ventilated,  poorly  lighted,  poorly  drained,  and  poorly  kept 
stables  are  perhaps  the  source  of  more  ailments  among  horses 
than  all  other  agents  combined.  Pure  air,  light,  dryness,  and 
cleanliness  are  essentials  to  the  horse's  well  being.  These  can 
be  procured  with  small  cost  and  should  not  be  neglected  in  the 
arrangement  of  a  stable  in  which  to  care  for  the  horse. 

Catarrh  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE  175 

nostrils  and  nasal  chamber.  There  are  two  well-recognized 
forms ;  the  acute  and  the  chronic.  Catarrh  is  often  associated 
with  distemper.  Acute  catarrh  comes  on  rather  suddenly. 
The  animal  appears  dull.  There  is  often  a  chill  in  the  early 
stages,  followed  later  by  fever.  The  membrane  is  dry  and 
rather  red.  Soon  a  watery  discharge  flows  from  the  nostrils, 
the  eyes  may  be  affected  and  tears  flow  down  the  cheeks. 
The  discharge  from  the  nostrils  becomes  thicker  and  pus-like. 
The  bowels  are  often  constipated.  The  cause  is  exposure  to 
cold  and  wet.  The  treatment  is  to  give  rest,  provide  comfort- 
able quarters,  blanket  the  animal,  and  feed  laxative,  easily 
digested  food,  such  as  bran  mashes,  linseed  gruel,  and  grass,  if 
in  season.  A  few  days'  quiet  rest,  with  pure  air  and  good  food, 
will  be  of  greater  benefit  than  most  medication.  Give  a  table- 
spoonful  of  saltpeter  in  the  drinking  water  once  daily.  Often 
much  benefit  can  be  derived  from  the  inhalation  of  steam. 
To  do  this  throw  a  blanket  over  the  horse's  head,  place  under  this 
a  pail  of  boiling  water  containing  a  tablespoonful  of  carbolic  acid. 
Chronic  catarrh  comes  slowly ;  in  fact  is  usually  due  to  some 
other  disease  such  as  a  cold,  though  there  are  other  causes. 
The  animal  appears  much  the  same  as  in  acute  catarrh,  the 
discharge  being  thicker,  often  3rellowish  to  white.  It  may  be 
discharged  in  lumps.  In  some  cases  it  clogs,  and  the  face  may 
bulge  from  the  pressure  of  the  pus  inside.  Occasionally  the 
parts  become  diseased  and  the  pus  cuts  through  and  is  dis- 
charged to  the  outside.  Sometimes  there  is  a  cough.  The 
treatment  so  far  as  rest  and  food  is  concerned  is  the  same  as 
in  acute  cases.  Give  the  horse  a  tonic.  Steam  the  head. 
After  steaming  spray  the  nostrils  once  daily  with  the  following : 
two  drams  of  boric  acid  dissolved  in  one  quart  of  warm  water. 
Occasionally  the  pus  collects  in  one  of  the  cavities,  and  it  is  neces- 
sary to  cut  open  and  wash  out  the  cavity.  The  boric  acid  solu- 
tion makes  a  good  wash  for  this  purpose.  This  may  greatly 
hasten  the  cure. 


176  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Heaves,  broke?i  wind,  asthma. — Many  loosely  apply  the  term 
"  heaves  "  to  all  ailments  where  the  breathing  is  difficult  and 
noisy.  While  the  veterinarians  define  these  ailments  as  if  well 
understood,  yet  they  seem  to  be  unable  to  do  much  for  such 
diseases.  Heaves  is  often  associated  with  indigestion,  or  to  an 
error  in  the  choice  of  food.  Overfeeding,  especially  with  dusty 
or  moldy  hay,  is  a  common  cause.  Severe  work  immediately 
after  feeding  may  bring  on  the  ailment.  Again  the  tendency 
to  the  disease  seems  to  be  hereditary,  hence  animals  thus  dis- 
posed should  not  be  used  in  breeding.  Heaves  is  readily  rec- 
ognized by  the  deep,  moist,  grunting  cough ;  by  the  peculiar 
movement  of  the  flank  during  expiration  and  by  the  dilated 
nostrils  which  frequently  discharge  a  thick  mucus.  These 
are  more  noticeable  immediately  after  feeding  or  watering. 
"  Heavy  "  horses  are  very  common. 

When  the  disease  is  established,  there  is  no  cure.  Proper 
attention  should  be  paid  to  the  quarters  and  diet.  Provide 
light,  dry,  clean,  and  well-ventilated  quarters.  Feed  easily 
digested,  nutritious,  and  not  bulky  food.  Moisten  the  hay 
and  do  not  feed  too  much.  Molasses  as  well  as  carrots,  pota- 
toes, or  turnips  chopped  and  mixed  with  oats  and  corn,  are  a 
good  diet.  For  medicine  give  arsenic,  in  the  form  of  Fowler's 
solution,  at  first  two  teaspoonfuls  in  the  food  or  water  three 
times  daily,  gradually  increasing  to  a  tablespoonful  three  times 
daily  and  continuing  for  one  month. 

Roaring,  whistling,  thick  wind.  —  These  are  due  to  an  obstruc- 
tion in  some  part  of  the  respiratory  tract  which  prevents  the 
free  passage  of  air.  The  causes  are  numerous  and  not  well 
understood.  It  often  follows  distemper  or  injury  to  the  throat. 
The  tendency  is  hereditary.  Some  animals  seem  more  dis- 
posed than  others,  especially  those  with  long  slender  necks. 
When  the  disease  is  established,  there  is  little  that  can  be  done 
by  way  of  treatment.  In  certain  forms  of  the  ailment,  light 
blistering  over  the  larynx  will  give  relief. 


DISEASES    OF  THE  HORSE  177 


MISCELLANEOUS    DISEASES 


There  are  many  ailments  of  the  horse,  more  or  less  general 
in  their  nature.  Some  of  them  involve  more  than  one  of  the 
systems  of  the  animal  body.  Many  of  them  are  not  well  under- 
stood. It  has  seemed  best,  therefore,  to  set  these  ailments  out 
by  themselves  and  discuss  under  one  general  heading. 

Wounds  are  injuries  to  the  living  tissue.  Their  causes  are 
varied  and  numerous.  First  examine  the  wound  to  find  the 
depth  and  direction  and  to  see  that  there  is  no  foreign  substance 
in  it.  All  foreign  materials,  such  as  dirt,  hair,  and  the  like, 
must  be  carefully  washed  out  with  water  to  which  a  little  car- 
bolic acid  has  been  added,  about  a  teaspoonful  of  the  acid  to  a 
quart  of  water.  Where  there  is  much  bleeding,  this  must  be 
stopped,  at  least  in  part.  If  the  bleeding  is  from  an  artery,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  tie  the  end  of  the  artery  towards  the 
heart.  In  ordinary  wounds  the  treatment  is  to  hasten  the 
formation  of  a  clot.  To  do  this  bring  the  edges  of  the  wound 
together  and  bind  them  there.  If  this  is  not  convenient,  apply 
some  material,  such  as  absorbent  cotton,  to  the  wound ;  this 
serves  to  gather  and  hold  the  blood,  thus  hastening  the  clot. 

Ordinary  wheat  flour  applied  to  the  wound  is  good  to  hasten 
clot  formation.  So  is  bathing  in  alum  solutions.  Cold  water 
is  also  good.  In  large  wounds  it  may  be  necessary  to  sew  the 
edges  together.  In  doing  this  much  care  must  be  exercised  to 
keep  everything  perfectly  clean.  The  parts  must  be  brought 
together  evenly  so  that  the  edges  will  not  pucker.  In  stitching, 
if  possible  use  silk  thread,  but  whatever  material  used,  it  should 
first  be  dipped  into  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Make  the 
stitches  independent,  tying  the  two  ends  across  the  wound. 
Place  stitches  one-quarter  to  one-half  inch  apart.  Bathe  in  5 
per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Protect  the  wound  and  re- 
strain the  horse  so  it  cannot  rub  or  bite  the  injured  part. 

Distemper,  often  called  strangles,  colt  ill,  catarrhal  fever,  or 

N 


178  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

shipping  fever,  is  peculiar  to  the  horse,  mule,  and  ass,  and  it 
is  common.  It  appears  as  a  fever  lasting  a  few  days,  with 
formation  of  matter  or  pus,  in  the  air  tubes,  and  often  the  for- 
mation of  abscesses  in  other  parts  of  the  body.  It  usually  leaves 
the  horse  perfectly  healthy,  but  may  leave  it  a  roarer.  The 
disease  is  infectious  and  passes  from  one  animal  to  another, 
and  few  are  the  animals  that  escape  it.  Ordinary  light  cases 
require  but  little  treatment  beyond  proper  protection  and  feed- 
ing nutritious,  easily  digested  food,  such  as  bran  mashes.  They 
must  have  protection  from  exposure  to  cold  and  damp  or  the 
disease  will  be  complicated  with  bronchitis  or  similar  ailments. 
If  the  case  becomes  serious,  more  care  is  required.  To  reduce 
the  temperature  the  safest  and  simplest  plan  is  to  inject  large 
quantities  of  cold  water  into  the  rectum  ;  or  give  a  table- 
spoonful  of  nitrate  of  potassium,  as  a  drench  or  in  the  drinking 
water  once  daily.  To  ease  the  cough  and  allay  the  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane,  place  a  blanket  over  the  head,  and 
steam  with  the  vapor  of  warm  water  poured  over  a  bucket  of 
bran  and  hay  in  which  belladonna  leaves  or  tar  have  been 
placed,  as  in  catarrh.  If  the  bowels  are  constipated,  give  in- 
jections of  warm  water  and  glycerine.  Physic  should  not  be 
given.  If  an  abscess  forms,  poultice  with  warm  linseed,  chang- 
ing daily,  open  and  wash  with  3  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic 
acid. 

Influenza,  sometimes  called  pink-eye,  bilious  fever,  grippe, 
and  various  other  names,  is  also  peculiar  to  the  horse,  mule,  and 
ass.  It  usually  appears  as  a  fever;  the  animal  seems  greatly 
depressed,  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  eyes  are  very  fre- 
quently enlarged  and  inflamed,  giving  rise  to  the  name  pink-eye. 
One  attack  usually  protects  the  animal  from  future  ones  of  the 
same  disease,  but  not  always.  The  disease  is  infectious  and 
contagious,  passing  from  one  animal  to  another.  The  treat- 
ment is  to  give  rest,  provide  comfortable  quarters,  and  feed 
easily  digested  and  nutritious  foods,  such  as  bran  mash,  roots, 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE 


179 


apples,  good  oats,  and  grass  in  season.  The  animal  must  have 
protection  and  warmth  or  complications  will  develop.  If  the 
cough  is  troublesome,  steam  the  head  as  suggested  for  distemper, 
using  a  piece  of  camphor  about  the  size  of  a  walnut  in  a  pail 
of  boiling  water  and  hold  the  animal's  head  over  it  for  fifteen 
minutes  at  a  time  at  least  three  times  daily.  To  reduce  the 
temperature,  inject  cold  water  as  suggested  for  distemper,  or 
give  a  tablespoonful  of  nitrate  of  potash,  as  a  drench  or  in  the 
drinking  water  once  daily.  If  the  throat  is  sore,  rub  on  a  little 
mustard  once  a  day  for  a  few  days.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
avoid  complications. 


Fig.  64.  —  Hackney    Mare    "Kitty   Grey 

Watson. 


ix   Action.     Owned   bv  C.  W. 


Azoturia  is  a  form  of  poisoning  resulting  from  high  feeding 
and  lack  of  exercise.  It  is  often  called  " bloody  water"  because 
of  the  dense  reddish  or  brownish  urine.  Azoturia  occurs  only 
among  horses  that  are  in  good  flesh,  when  they  are  exercised 
after  standing  in  the  stable  for  a  few  days.  It  often  comes  on 
quickly,  attacking  the  animal  after  traveling  only  a  short  dis- 
tance. The  horse  becomes  stiff,  particularly  in  the  hind  part, 
and  in  severe  cases  sweats  profusely,  the  muscles  tremble,  his 


180  MANUAL   OF  FABM  ANIMALS 

hind  parts  difficult  to  control,  and  he  goes  down  and  is  often 
unable  to  rise  again.  This  ailment  varies  much  in  severity ; 
in  some  cases  the  animal  goes  lame  and  if  stopped  and  blanketed, 
the  disease  passes  away;  in  other  cases  the  animal  goes  down 
and  dies  in  a  few  minutes.  The  treatment  in  mild  cases  is  a 
laxative,  and  graduated  daily  exercise.  Sudden  attacks  will 
sometimes  promptly  subside  if  taken  on  the  instant  and  the 
subject  kept  still  and  calmed  by  a  dose  of  bromide  of  potassium 
in  half  ounce  dose  and  sweet  spirits  of  niter  in  ounce  dose.  If 
the  animal  does  not  calm,  the  bromide  may  be  repeated  in  five 
hours  and  the  niter  twice  daily.  Blankets  wrung  from  warm 
water  and  placed  over  the  loins  are  also  good  to  quiet  the 
animal.  After  the  animal  has  calmed,  iodide  of  potassium  in 
dram  doses  may  be  given  three  times  daily  in  place  of  the 
bromide,  'fhe  horse  should  be  given  all  the  water  he  wants, 
and  if  unable  to  stand,  must  have  a  thick  soft  bed,  and  should 
be  turned  from  side  to  side  at  least  every  twelve  hours.  It  is 
often  necessary  to  draw  the  urine  with  a  catheter. 

Foul  sheath.  —  Geldings  are  occasionally  troubled  by  an 
accumulation  of  the  material  from  the  glands  of  the  sheath 
which  often  hinders  the  free  passage  of  urine.  The  sheath 
may  become  stopped  up  and  the  retained  urine  increase  the 
trouble.  In  such  cases  the  sheath  should  be  well  cleaned,  and 
then  greased  with  fresh  lard  or  vaseline. 

Diseases  of  the  eye.  —  The  value  of  sound  eyes  among  horses 
cannot  be  overestimated.  While  there  are  many  diseases  and 
injuries  to  which  the  eye  is  subject,  we  shall  consider  only  the 
three  common  ailments:  simple  inflammation,  "moon  blind- 
ness," and  "pink-eye."  Simple  inflammation  is  usually  due 
to  an  injury,  or  to  some  foreign  bodies  in  the  eye,  such  as  hay 
seed,  chaff,  cinders,  sand,  and  the  like.  Strong  light  irritates 
the  eye.  The  eye  becomes  red  and  inflamed,  the  eyelids 
swollen,  and  the  tears  are  discharged  freely.  The  treatment  is 
to  locate  the  cause  and  remove  it.     Such  bodies  as  hay  seed 


DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE  181 

and  chaff  can  be  removed  by  wiping  the  surface  of  the  eyeball 
with  a  piece  of  soft  silk.  To  do  this  it  is  often  necessary  to  put 
,a  twitch  on  the  animal.  If  any  substance  should  stick  into  the 
eye,  it  is  best  removed  with  the  forceps.  After  the  cause  is 
removed,  bathe  the  eye  with  cold  water  and  apply  cold  cloths 
to  reduce  the  inflammation.  If  this  does  not  reduce  the  in- 
flammation, bathe  three  times  daily  with  hot  instead  of  cold 
water.  Follow  this  by  applying  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of 
boric  acid,  a  teaspoonful  to  a  cup  of  water.  This  may  be  ap- 
plied with  a  medicine-dropper. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country,  moon-blindness  is  a  very 
common  disease  of  the  eye  among  horses.  Its  causes  are  not 
known,  though  the  disease  tends  to  be  hereditary.  The  eye 
behaves  much  as  in  simple  inflammation.  The  eye  becomes 
red  and  inflamed,  the  tears  are  profuse,  the  lids  swollen  and 
kept  partly  closed  to  shield  the  eye.  In  a  week  or  two  the  in- 
flammation goes  down,  the  eye  clears  up,  save  there  remains 
around  the  iris  a  yellow  band.  In  a  few  weeks  the  attack 
comes  on  again.  These  attacks  continue  until  the  animal 
becomes  permanently  blind.  The  sight  can,  however,  be  pro- 
longed by  careful  treatment.  When  the  attack  comes  on, 
keep  the  animal  in  a  moderately  dark  stall  and  treat  as  in  simple 
inflammation.  Bathe  with  hot  water  and  apply  boric  acid  solu- 
tion. In  addition  give  internally  as  a  drench  one  teaspoonful 
of  iodide  of  potassium.  Continue  for  five  days,  then  withhold 
five  days,  and  repeat. 

Pink-eye,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  178),  is  a  sort  of  influenza. 
The  disease  affects  the  entire  system  and  is  contagious.  The 
treatment  is  to  isolate  the  horse  and  disinfect  his  stall.  Bathe 
with  hot  water  and  apply  boric  acid  solution  as  in  simple  in- 
flammation. In  addition  give  internally  as  a  drench  a  heaping 
teaspoonful  of  nitrate  of  potassium,  twice  daily,  as  this  stimu- 
lates the  kidneys  and  reduces  the  fever. 


PART    TWO  — CATTLE 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CHOOSING  CATTLE  — JUDGING 

In  the  choice  of  a  cow,  one  must  cultivate  the  same  general 
faculties  as  in  the  choosing  of  a  horse.  Familiarity  with  what 
is  wanted,  powers  of  observation,  and  good  judgment  are 
equally  as  important  in  the  choice  of  a  cow  as  in  that  of  any 
other  animal.  These  can  be  gained  only  by  study  and  prac- 
tice. The  importance  of  these  faculties  cannot  be  overesti- 
mated in  the  choice  of  a  cow,  either  for  the  dairy  or  for  beef. 

TYPES    OF    CATTLE 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  cattle  :  first,  the  dairy  type, 
adapted  to  the  production  of  milk;  and  second,  the  beef  type, 
employed  for  the  production  of  beef.  These  types  are  con- 
trolled by  the  demands  made  on  the  body  of  the  animal. 
For  example,  in  milk  production  the  udder  is  perhaps  as  im- 
portant an  organ  as  any,  whereas  in  beef  production  it  is  needed 
only  to  sustain  the  young.  Again,  in  the  case  of  beef  pro- 
duction it  is  very  important  that  the  animal  take  on  flesh  and 
that  the  body  be  plump  and  full,  whereas  in  the  production  of 
milk  this  would  be  considered  an  objection,  as  the  food  should 
go  to  the  production  of  milk  and  not  to  fat.  These  two 
types  are  of  necessity  widely  different  and  one  can  no  more 
have  maximum  milk  production  and  maximum  beef  produc- 
tion in  the  same  cow  than  he  can  have  maximum  speed  and 
maximum  force  in  the  same  horse,  or  in  the  same  machine. 

185 


186 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  65.  —  Jersey  Cow  "Torment- 
or's Lass."  Owned  by  Hood 
Farm,  Lowell,  Mass.     Dairy  type. 


The  dairy  type.  —  When  we  reflect   upon  the  purpose  for 
which  dairy  cows  are  kept,  the  type  becomes  apparent.     They 

are  useful  for  the  milk  they  can 
secrete,  and  not  for  the  flesh  of 
their  bodies ;  and  as  the  food 
should  go  to  produce  milk  and 
not  fat,  therefore  the  body  will 
be  spare  and  not  fleshy.  The 
secretion  of  milk  takes  place  in 
the  udder  and  allied  organs; 
therefore,  the  rear  development 
will  be  large.  Furthermore,  we 
cannot  have  large  production 
without  a  large  factory ;  thus  a 
large  secretion  of  milk  calls  for  a  large  digestive  tract,  which 
adds  to  the  rear  development  (Fig.  65). 

In  general  appearance,  the  form  of  the  dairy  cow  resembles 
that  of  a  triple-wedge.  Viewed  from  the  side,  she  shows  greater 
depth  of  body  behind  than  in  front.  Viewed  from  the  rear  and 
top,  she  gradually  widens  from 
the  chest  to  the  hips.  Viewed 
from  the  front  and  top,  she 
gradually  widens  from  the 
withers  backward  and  down- 
ward to  the  abdomen.  While 
this  is  the  desired  form  and 
many  superior  cows  possess  it, 
yet  exceptions  occur,  and 
many  heavy  milkers  are  not 
associated  with  this  form. 
Fleshiness,  however,  is  dis- 
tinctly objectionable  in  the  milking  cow. 

The  beef  type.  —  In  the  beef  type,  the  food  goes  to  the  pro- 
duction of  flesh ;  hence  a  tendency  to  fatten  is  desired.     The 


Fig.  66.  —  Angus  Steer.  Grand  cham- 
pion at  the  International  Live  Stock 
Exposition,  1909.    Beef  type. 


CHOOSING  A    COW  187 

quality  of  the  flesh  in  different  parts  of  the  body  varies  widely. 
In  the  meat-market,  flesh  forming  certain  parts  of  the  body  is 
worth  many  times  that  from  other  parts.  We  demand  there- 
fore in  the  beef  type  not  only  an  animal  with  a  tendency  to 
take  on  fat,  but  this  tendency  must  be  accelerated  in  the 
region  of  the  valuable  cuts. 

In  general  appearance,  the  form  of  the  beef  type  resembles 
that  of  a  brick  set  on  edge.  Viewed  from  the  side,  the  top  and 
bottom  lines  are  parallel.  There  is  no  wedge  shape  ;  the  ani- 
mal is  as  deep  in  front  as  behind.  Viewed  from  the  rear  and 
top,  the  withers  and  chest  present  an  appearance  almost  as 
wide  as  the  hip  and  rump.  The  animal  is  compact  and  broad 
of  back  from  shoulders  to  hips.  Cattle  of  the  beef  type  are 
often  referred  to  as  "blocky,"  indicating  compactness  and 
squareness  of  form  (Fig.  66). 

HOW    TO    ESTIMATE    THE    AGE    OF   A    COW 

The  age  of  a  cow  is  a  very  important  factor  in  determining  her 
present  and  prospective  value.  Familiarity  with  the  characters 
that  indicate  age,  therefore,  are  often  extremely  useful.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  horse,  a  knowledge  of  these  characters  is  not 
difficult  to  secure,  but  skill  in  their  application  depends  much 
on  continued  practice. 

General  consideration.  —  In  estimating  the  age  of  a  cow, 
the  order  of  the  appearance  of  the  permanent  teeth  furnishes 
the  best  index,  especially  from  two  to  five  years  of  age.  There 
are,  however,  other  general  considerations  that  aid  in  estimat- 
ing age,  especially  in  the  case  of  young  and  \zxy  old  animals. 
Size  is  the  principal  factor  in  determining  the  age  up  to  a  year 
and  one-half.  In  old  animals  the  top  of  the  head  becomes 
more  prominent,  the  sides  of  the  face  more  depressed,  and  the 
hollows  above  the  eyes  deeper.  With  age  the  backbone  be- 
comes more  prominent  and  often  strongly  curved  downward. 

Examination  of  the  teeth.  —  While  the  order  of  the  appearance 


188 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


of  the  permanent  teeth  and  their  method  of  wearing  are  con- 
sidered the  most  accurate  means  of  estimating  age  among  cattle, 

yet  they  are  not  absolutely  accurate 
nor  are  they  as  dependable  as  in 
the  horse.  Teeth  in  cattle  vary  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
horse.  See  page  8  for  variation  in 
teeth  among  horses. 

As  in  the  horse,  there  are  two 
sets  of  teeth, — first,  the  temporary 
or  milk  teeth,  and  later  the  perma- 
nent teeth.  The  latter  differ  from 
the  former  in  their  greater  size. 
This  replacement  of  the  temporary 
by  the  permanent  is  made  neces- 
sary by  the  increased  size  of  the 
jaw  as  the  animal  grows  older. 

The  calf  is  often  born  with  the 
central  pair  of  milk  teeth,  and  the 
remaining  pairs  appear  within  the 
first  month  after  birth.  The  calf 
is  provided  with  four  pairs  of  in- 
cisor teeth.  There  are  incisors 
in  the  lower  jaw  only,  the  upper 
being  provided  with  a  cartilaginous 
pad. 

When  the  animal  is  approxi- 
mately eighteen  months  of  age, 
the  middle  pair  of  milk  teeth  is  replaced  by  permanent  ones, 
which  are  fully  twice  as  broad  as  the  milk  teeth,  hence  easily 
recognized  (Fig.  67).  The  intervals  between  the  appearance  of 
the  succeeding  pairs  varies  much  according  to  the  conditions, 
but  can  be  stated  as  approximately  nine  months,  perhaps  more 
rather  than  less.     In  general  the  age  of  the  animal  at  the  time 


Fig.  67. — Cows'  Teeth  ar- 
ranged ACCORDING  TO  AGE. 
Lowest  row  represents  a  15 
months'  old  mouth,  second 
row  18  months',  third  row  27 
months',  fourth  row  36 
months',  fifth  row  45  months', 
and  the  top  row  represents 
the  teeth  of  a  ten-year-old 
cow.  —  Wallace. 


CHOOSING  A    COW  189 

each   pair   is    up    and    in    full    wear    may   be   estimated    as 
follows :  — 

First  or  middle  pair  of  permanent  teeth 18  months 

Second  or  first  intermediate  pair  of  permanent  teeth     .     .  27  months 

Third  or  second  intermediate  pair  of  permanent  teeth  .     .  36  months 

Fourth  or  lateral  pair  of  permanent  teeth 45  months 

If  there  is  a  variation  for  this  table,  the  cow  is  likely  to  be 
older  rather  than  younger  than  the  teeth  indicate  according  to 
the  ages.  In  fact,  some  authors  say  the  first  pair  of  permanent 
teeth  appear  at  two  years  of  age ;  the  second  pair  at  three ;  the 
third  pair  at  four ;   and  the  fourth  pair  at  five  years  of  age. 

The  permanent  teeth  of  the  cow  differ  in  many  respects  from 
those  of  the. horse.  After  they  are  up  and  in  wear  there  is  com- 
paratively little  change  for  a  few  years.  They  are  never  firmly 
fixed  in  the  jaw,  as  are  the  permanent  teeth  of  the  horse. 

As  the  animal  grows  older  the  teeth  become  narrower,  and 
by  the  ninth  year  there  is  much  space  between  them.  They 
shrink  away  from  each  other  and  often  become  more  or  less 
discolored  and  finally  drop  out  one  by  one. 

Examination  of  the  horns.  —  The  horns  of  cattle  are  often 
used  in  estimating  the  age.  During  the  first  two  years  the  horns 
grow  rapidly,  and  in  this  time  they  make  approximately  their 
entire  growth.  After  two  years  of  age,  the  growth  is  slow,  and 
each  year's  addition  is  marked  by  a  more  or  less  distinct  ring. 
The  first  ring  does  not  make  its  appearance  until  the  animal  is 
approximately  three  years  old.  The  age  is  estimated,  there- 
fore, by  adding  two  to  the  number  of  rings  present. 

CHOOSING   A    DAIRY    COW 

The  dairy  cow  is  desired  for  her  ability  to  secrete  milk  at  a 
profit.  In  estimating  the  value  of  a  dairy  cow  there  is  no 
method  so  satisfactory  as  the  actual  record  of  her  performance 
as  determined  by  the  scales  and  the  Babcock  test.     Having 


190  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

a  record  of  the  quantity  of  milk,  the  percentage  of  fat,  and  the 
approximate  food  consumed,  the  value  of  a  cow  for  dairy  pur- 
poses may  be  determined  very  accurately.  If  in  addition  to  her 
own  record,  we  have  a  record  of  the  performance  of  both  her 
dam  and  her  sire's  daughters,  we  can  speculate  with  some 
degree  of  certainty  her  prospective  production,  as  well  as  that 
of  her  daughters  and  her  sons'  get.  Such  records,  however, 
are  seldom  available,  and  in  their  absence  we  estimate  the  pro- 
duction by  those  signs  that  most  certainly  indicate  it.  While 
these  signs  are  not  always  true  indications  of  high  production, 
yet  in  the  absence  of  more  accurate  information  they  are  the 
best  we  can  do. 

As  in  the  choosing  of  a  horse,  it  is  essential  that  we  examine 
the  animal  in  systematic  order,  otherwise  some  very  valuable 
character  may  go  unobserved.  Perhaps  the  most  convenient 
and  simplest  method  is  to  note  the  general  appearance  of  the 
animal  first,  that  is,  the  form  or  shape,  weight,  quality,  and 
constitution,  and  if  these  are  satisfactory,  then  make  a  more 
detailed  examination,  studying  each  character  in  relation  to 
milk  production. 

General  characteristics  in  dairy  cows 

By  carefully  observing  the  general  appearance  of  the  dairy 
cow,  one  can  gain  a  fair  knowledge  of  her  desirability.  Very 
often  the  general  features  are  not  given  much  consideration 
and  we  pass  to  a  detailed  examination,  with  the  result  that 
many  very  important  characteristics  go  unconsidered.  Some 
persons  have  such  an  accurate  "  eye  "  for  appearances  that 
they  are  able  to  judge  a  cow  very  surely  by  a  general  look; 
but  for  most  people  this  method  is  unsafe. 

Form.  -  -  The  general  form  should  be  considered  from  two 
points  of  view :  First,  with  respect  to  angularity ;  second, 
freedom  from  beefiness.     It  will  aid  us  to  gain  a  clearer  under- 


CHOOSING  A    COW  191 

standing  of  the  form  among  dairy  cows  if  we  will  remember 
that  there  is  extra  heavy  demand  made  upon  four  systems. 
These  are  the  milk-secreting  system,  the  digestive  system,  the 
circulatory  system,  and  the  nervous  system.  It  is  because  of 
the  extreme  activity  of  these  centers  that  the  dairy  cow  is  in- 
clined towards  a  given  form.  The  milk-secreting  organs  and 
the  digestive  organs  having  an  undue  amount  of  work  to  do 
tends  towards  extreme  development,  while  the  other  parts,  be- 
cause of  their  inactivity,  are  inclined  to  be  narrow. 

The  typical  form  of  a  dairy  cow  is  that  of  a  triple  wedge,  as 
already  indicated.  Viewed  from  either  side  she  should  show 
greater  depth  of  body  behind  than  in  front.  The  shoulder 
should  be  lower  than  the  hips  and  the  floor  of  the  chest  higher 
than  the  bottom  of  the  udder.  If  a  straight  edge  were  laid 
along  the  back  and  allowed  to  project  forward,  and  a  second 
straight  edge  placed  along  the  under  line  touching  the  bottom 
of  the  udder,  the  abdomen,  and  the  floor  of  the  chest,  and  allowed 
to  project  forward,  it  should  meet  the  one  from  the  back  a  short 
distance  in  front  of  the  animal.  Viewed  from  the  rear  and  top 
the  dairy  cow  should  gradually  widen  from  the  chest  to  the  hips. 
Straight  edges  placed  along  either  side  and.  projecting  forward 
should  meet  a  short  distance  in  front  of  the  animal.  Viewed 
from  the  front  and  top  she  gradually  widens  from  the  withers 
backward  and  downward  (Fig.  68).  This  illustrates  the  typical 
dairy  form  and  the  one  towards  which  most  good  milk  cows  tend, 
though  it  does  not  follow  that  a  cow,  to  be  a  good  dairy  animal, 
must  be  of  this  type.  Occasionally  a  good  milker  can  be  found 
not  of  this  form,  but  since  most  good  milk  cows  tend  towards 
this  shape,  and  in  the  absence  of  more  accurate  data,  such  as 
the  actual  records,  the  choosing  of  animals  possessing  such 
configuration  is  to  be  recommended. 

If  the  cow  tends  naturally  to  take  on  fat,  she  is  worth  just  so 
much  less  as  a  milk  cow.  The  dairy  cow  should  be  spare. 
There  should  be  an  absence  of  fleshiness  throughout,  partic- 


192 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


ularly  in  the  region  of  the  shoulders,  the  back,  the  rump,  and 
about  the  tail-head,  places  likely  first  to  show  fat  among  animals 
possessing  such  a  tendency.     While  this  is  the  form  ordinarily 


Fig.  68.  —  Guernsey  Cow  "Dolly  Dimple."  Sired  by  Yeoman.  She  gave 
-18,459  pounds  of  milk  containing  907  pounds  of  fat.  World's  record  for  the 
breed.     Bred  and  owned  by  F.  L.  Ames,  North  Easton,  Mass. 

The  Guernsey  dairy  cattle  originated  on  the  island  from  which  they  take  their 
name,  one  of  the  Channel  Island  group.  They  possess  similar  characteristics 
to  the  Jerseys,  but  are  somewhat  larger,  and  the  milk  is  hardly  so  rich.  The 
weight  will  run  900  pounds  and  upward.  The  color  is  either  yellowish,  brown- 
ish or  reddish,  fawn,  and  white. 


possessed  by  the  best  producers,  here  too  exception  can  occa- 
sionally be  found.  A  cow  may  be  found  that  is  so  efficient 
with  her  food  that  she  can  take  on  fat  and  in  addition  secrete 
more  milk  than  another  and  less  efficient  cow  can  secrete  alone, 


CHOOSING  A    COW  193 

be  she  ever  so  spare.  But  in  the  absence  of  more  accurate  in- 
formation, the  spare  form  is  to  be  preferred. 

Quality.  —  The  quality  is  a  very  important  factor  in  the  choice 
of  a  dairy  cow.  It  is  well  determined  by  the  condition  of  the 
skin,  hair,  and  bone.  The  skin  should  be  soft,  mellow,  oily  to 
the  touch,  and  comparatively  thin.  Care  must  be  exercised  in 
respect  to  the  thinness  of  the  skin,  as  a  thin,  papery  skin  as  such 
is  usually  associated  with  weakness  of  constitution.  The  skin 
lining  the  ear,  as  well  as  that  in  the  region  of  the  udder,  inside 
the  thighs,  and  at  the  root  of  the  tail,  should  be  of  a  golden  color 
and  the  secretions  abundant.  The  hair  should  be  soft,  silky, 
and  comparatively  short.  Black  hairs  will  usually  be  harsher 
than  white  hairs,  even  on  the  same  animal.  While  many  good 
milking  cows  are  loose  in  form,  possessing  an  open  conformation, 
yet  the  bone  should  be  dense  and  of  fine  texture.  Dairy  cows 
possessed  of  a  tight,  heavy  skin,  coarse,  harsh  hair,  and  of  a  heavy, 
rough,  coarse  bone  are  deficient  in  quality. 

Constitution.  —  Because  of  the  peculiar  conditions  under 
which  most  dairy  cows  are  kept,  the  constitutional  vigor  de- 
serves much  attention.  Vigor  is  estimated  by  the  expression, 
by  the  condition  of  the  hair  and  hide,  and  by  the  chest  capacity. 
The  expression  of  the  eyes,  ears,  and  head  should  be  mild  and 
lively,  and  the  animal  should  be  on  the  alert.  The  chest  ca- 
pacity should  be  large,  particularly  across  the  floor.  A  good  way 
to  note  the  width  of  the  floor  of  the  chest  is  to  place  the  hand 
along  the  chest  between  the  front  legs,  as  the  width  between 
the  front  legs  should  be  great.  Narrowness  between  the  front 
legs  is  objectionable  for  the  reason  that  it  indicates  lack  of 
constitution. 

Temperament.  —  The  dairy  cow  should  have  a  good  tempera- 
ment. Among  cattle  there  are  two  divisions  of  temperament : 
the  nervous  and  lymphatic.  In  a  cow  of  the  former  tempera- 
ment, the  nervous  organization  is  strong  and  well  developed, 
while  a  cow  of  lymphatic  temperament  is  sluggish  in  disposition 


194  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  inclined  to  fatten.  Hence,  for  the  dairy  we  desire  a  cow 
of  nervous  temperament,  one  that  is  sensitive  and  active,  pos- 
sessing greatest  vitality,  and  that  is  capable  of  giving  all  organs 
the  greatest  producing  powers. 

Detail  characters  of  a  dairy  cow. 

Having  considered  the  general  appearance  of  the  dairy  cow, 
we  should  pass  to  a  more  detailed  examination  of  her  characters 
before  choosing.  In  order  that  none  of  these  characters  go 
unobserved,  they  should  be  considered  in  order. 

The  head  of  a  dairy  cow  should  be  long,  lean,  and  feminine  in 
appearance.  There  should  be  freedom  from  coarseness  and 
heaviness.  The  face  should  be  prolonged,  lean,  and  the  fea- 
tures distinct.  The  poll  should  be  prominent  and  the  forehead 
broad.  The  eyes  should  be  mild,  bright,  and  full.  The  nostrils 
should  be  large,  permitting  of  the  free  passage  of  air.  The  ear 
should  be  of  medium  size,  fine  quality,  and  of  an  orange  color 
inside.  The  horn  should  be  rather  small  and  free  from  coarse- 
ness, especially  at  the  base. 

The  neck  should  be  rather  long,  slim,  and  fine,  carrying  the 
head  gracefully.  There  should  be  freedom  from  fullness  and 
heaviness.  The  windpipe  should  be  rather  prominent,  especially 
up  near  the  throat.  While  the  neck  should  have  a  neat  attach- 
ment at  the  head  and  shoulders,  yet  it  should  not  blend  so 
smoothly  as  in  beef  cattle  because  of  the  lack  of  flesh.  The 
animal  should  not  have  a  "  bull  neck." 

Fore-quarters.  —  The  shoulders  should  be  prominent,  free 
from  beefiness,  and  rather  angular.  The  withers  should  be 
lean,  thin,  and  refined.  Both  withers  and  shoulders  should  be 
free  from  meatiness  and  heaviness.  The  legs  should  be  straight 
and  short  with  fine  shanks  (Fig.  69). 

Body.  —  The  producing  powers  of  the  dairy  cow  depend 
largely  on  the  depth  and  volume  of  the  barrel.  We  have  already 
noted  the  importance  of  the  digestive,  circulatory,  and  respiratory 


CHOOSING  A    COW  195 

systems  in  the  dairy  cow.  In  order  that  these  systems  perform 
their  functions  most  efficiently  it  is  necessary  to  provide  them 
ample  room.  The  chest  should 
be  deep,  with  large  heart  girth, 
and  broad  on  the  floor,  partic- 
ularly as  noted  between  the 
fore  legs.  The  ribs  should  be 
long  and  sufficiently  arched  to 
provide  a  capacious  body. 
The  abdomen  should  be  large 
and   deep,  indicative  of   much 

Capacity,    and    should    be    well     FlG-     69. —  Guernsey    Cow,     "Im- 

,        mi        l       i       i        i  l  ported    Hayes    Rosie."     Dam    of 

Supported.        Ihe    back    Should  "Yeoman."    Owned  by  F.  L.  Ames. 

be  lean,  backbone  rather  promi- 
nent and  strong.      In  many  good  dairy   cows  there  is  much 
distance  between  the  spinal  processes,  and  the  cow  is  said  to 
be  "open  jointed."     The  loin  should  be  broad,  although  the 
space  between  the  last  rib  and  hip  may  be  rather  open. 

Hind-quarters.  —  As  a  whole,  the  hind-quarters  in  a  dairy 
cow  should  be  wide,  long,  and  deep.  There  should  be  freedom 
from  fullness  and  meatiness,  particularly  at  the  tail-head.  In 
many  very  good  cows  there  is  a  slight  raise  from  the  hips  to  the 
attachment  of  the  tail.  The  hip  bones  should  be  rather  sharp, 
prominent  and  wide  apart,  thus  giving  ample  room  for  the  gen- 
erative organs.  They  should  not  be  lower  than  the  spine.  The 
rump  should  be  long  and  wide,  with  the  thurls  and  pin-bones 
high  and  wide  apart.  From  the  points  of  the  hips  to  the  tail- 
head  there  should  be  a  marked  hollow,  due  to  the  absence  of 
flesh.  The  thigh  should  be  outcurved  and  thin,  as  this  provides 
room  for  the  udder.  A  thick  thigh  and  a  full  twist  are  de- 
cidedly objectionable  in  a  dairy  cow.  The  legs  should  be 
comparatively  short. 

Udder.  —  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  placed  on  the  impor- 
tance of  thoroughly  examining  the  udder  when  choosing  a  dairy 


196  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

cow.  If  one  can  say  that  one  organ  is  more  important  than 
another,  the  udder  is  perhaps  the  most  important  organ  in  the 
dairy  cow.  The  udder  should  be  considered  from  two  points 
of  view :   the  size  and  form,  and  the  quality. 

The  udder  should  be  large.  In  form  it  should  be  moderately 
thick,  attached  high  and  full  behind,  extending  well  down, 
though  not  pendulant,  and  extending  far  in  front.  The  quar- 
ters should  be  comparatively  even,  with  the  teats  of  convenient 
size  and  well  placed.  The  length  of  the  udder  is  important 
since  it  gives  a  long  line  of  absorption.  It  should  be  approx- 
imately thirty  inches  from  the  attachment  at  the  back  to 
where  it  joins  the  belly. 

More  important  than  the  size  and  form  of  the  udder  is  its 
quality.  Many  persons  have  purchased  a  cow  because  of  her 
large  udder,  only  to  learn  that  it  was  large  because  fleshy 
and  not  because  of  containing  much  milk.  Perhaps  the  best 
way  to  determine  this  is  to  see  the  udder  milked  out.  When 
empty,  the  udder  should  almost  lose  its  form.  It  should  appear 
to  consist  of  folds  of  soft,  pliable,  and  loose  skim  The  im- 
portance of  this  cannot  be  overestimated.  Those  of  large 
experience  can  determine  by  the  touch  whether  the  udder  is 
large  because  fleshy  or  large  because  filled  with  milk.  When 
filled  with  milk,  the  udder  yields  to  pressure  somewhat  as  a 
sponge  when  filled  with  water.  On  the  other  hand,  when  large 
because  fleshy,  the  yielding  is  more  like  soft  rubber.  There  is 
a  characteristic  difference  which  can  be  learned  only  by  ex- 
perience. 

While  there  are  many  defects  of  the  udder,  the  most  common 
are  small  front  quarters,  with  the  teats  much  higher  above  or 
close  to  the  hind  ones ;  fleshy  udders  which  reduce  but  little 
with  milking  and  yield  a  small  flow;  udders  entirely  deficient 
in  size  and  often  with  very  unequal  quarters.  One  must  be 
on  the  alert  for  small  teats,  -so  deficient  in  size  as  to  be  very 
inconvenient  when  milking. 


CHOOSING  A    CO  W 


197 


4dl0***0** 


The  milk-veins  should  be  large,  tortuous,  long,  and  branching. 
These  veins  are  considered  important  as  they  indicate  the 
amount  of  blood  that  has  passed  through  the  udder.  The  veins 
usually  lack  development  in  heifers  with  their  first  calf.  In 
a  cow  that  has  recently  dropped  her  calf,  the  milk  veins  should 
be  very  prominent  and  full,  extending  well  forward,  and  much 
crooked,  passing  into  the  body  through  large  holes  called 
"  milk  wells." 

Milk  signs.  —  In  the  cow,  as  in  the  bull,  there  are  a  consider- 
able number  of  so-called  milk  signs  that  are  relied  upon  more 
or  less  in  the  choice  of  a  dairy 
animal.  First  among  these 
is  the  "  open  "  organization. 
It  is  said  that  an  animal  in 
which  the  joints  of  the  skele- 
ton are  loosely  knit  is  likely 
to  have  good  powers  of  secre- 
tion and  assimilation.  This 
loose-joint edness  or  lax  organ- 
ization is  well  indicated  by 
the     distance     between     the 

vertebrae  in  the  spinal  column,  and  this  open  or  loose  chine  — 
the  jointing  of  the  spinal  column  —  is  taken  to  indicate  good 
capacity  to  secrete  milk.  When  the  edges  of  these  spinal  pro- 
cesses are  very  prominent  on  either  side,  it  is  called  a  double 
chine,  and  this  is  supposed  to  be  even  a  better  indication  of  milk 
production.  A  long  tail  is  also  thought  by  many  to  indicate 
good  powers  of  secretion,  and  we  find  many  cattle  judges  who 
criticize  the  animal  if  the  tail  does  not  reach  to  the  hock  and  the 
longer  the  better. 

On  the  back  of  the  thighs  and  above  the  udder,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  hair  runs  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that 
on  the  other  parts  of  the  body.  This  up-growing  hair  upon 
the  rear  of  the  udder,  thighs,  and  perineum  constitutes  what 


Fig.  70.  —  Guernsey  Bull,  "Yeoman." 
Sire  of  Dolly  Dimple.  Owned  by  F. 
L.  Ames. 


198  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

is  called  "  the  escutcheon  "  or  "  milk  mirror."  It  is  asserted 
that  the  larger  the  area  covered  by  this  up-growing  hair,  the 
better  producer  the  cow  will  be.  Guenon,  a  Frenchman,  held 
that  the  shape  of  the  escutcheon  was  indicative  of  the  quantity 
of  milk  and  that  the  size  was  an  index  of  the  length  of  milk 
flow.  Another  character  which  Guenon  associated  with  large 
production  was  the  "thigh  ovals."  These  are  circular  patches 
of  hair  often  found  on  the  rear  of  the  udder  and  just  above 
the  hind  teats.  They  are  not  present  in  all  udders,  but  their 
presence  is  considered  to  indicate  large  milk  production. 

There  are  many  more  of  these  so-called  milk  signs  which  have 
from  time  to  time  and  by  different  men  been  considered  to  be 
a  true  index  to  the  value  of  a  dairy  cow  as  a  milk  producer. 
While  it  is  no  doubt  true  that  many  large-producing  milk  cows 
have  possessed  all  of  these  signs,  it  is  also  true  that  many  more 
and  higher  producers  have  been  lacking  in  them,  one  and  all. 

CHOOSING    BEEF    CATTLE 

In  beef  production  there  are  two  classes  of  cattle  to  be 
considered :  the  breeding  animals  and  the  fattening  animals. 
We  are  concerned  here  in  the  selection  of  cattle  to  fatten  for 
beef.  The  beef  animal  at  various  times  in  his  life  is  designated 
by  three  names  :  store  animal,  feeding  animal,  and  fat  animal. 
Cattle  are  spoken  of  as  store  animals  when  merely  being  carried 
along,  as  through  the  summer,  or  winter,  and  before  feeding 
begins  ;  they  are  called  feeding  animals  during  the  process  of 
fattening ;  and  fat  animals  after  they  are  "  finished "  and 
ready  for  market. 

For  fattening  purposes  steers  are  preferred  to  heifers.  All 
things  being  equal,  steers  will  feed  out  better  than  heifers. 
This  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  steers  are  quieter  in  the  feed 
lot  than  are  heifers.  The  females  are  often  restless  for  three 
or  four  days  every  three  weeks  on  account  of  their  periods  of 
heat.     For  this  reason  it  is  objectionable  to  have  even  a  few 


CHOOSING  FOR  BEEF  199 

heifers  in  with  a  lot  of  steers  as  they  disturb  the  steers  at  such 
times.  Furthermore,  too,  the  market  discriminates  against 
heifer  beef,  and  the  butcher  will  not  pay  as  much  for  a  drove 
of  heifers  as  he  will  a  lot  of  steers. 

General  characteristics  of  beef  cattle 

In  choosing  feeding  cattle  one  should  note  carefully  their 
general  appearance.  The  form,  the  quality,  the  condition,  the 
uniformity,  and  the  age  are  each  important,  and  should  re- 
ceive due  consideration. 

Form  of  the  feeder.  —  In  form  the  feeder  in  general  should 
resemble  a  brick  set  on  edge.  It  should  fill  out  a  parallelogram. 
The  top  and  bottom  lines  should  be  parallel.  The  shoulders 
and  chest  should  be  almost  as  wide  as  the  hips  and  rump. 
Feeders  should  be  "blocky,"  indicating  compactness  and 
squareness  of  form.  Those  with  long  bodies  are  termed 
"  rangy, "  while  those  with  long  legs  showing  too  little  depth  and 
fullness  of  body  are  termed  "leggy,"  both  of  which  are  objection- 
able in  a  feeder.  Steers  standing  high  from  the  ground,  light 
in  the  flanks,  and  shallow  in  the  heart  girth  rarely  make  good 
feeders. 

The  quality  of  the  feeder.  —  Quality  in  feeders  is  determined 
in  the  same  way  as  in  dairy  cattle,  that  is,  by  a  soft,  mellow 
hide,  silky  hair,  and  a  fine  bone.  The  condition  of  the  skin  is 
thought  to  be  an  important  indication  as  to  the  probable  feed- 
ing qualities  of  a  steer.  If  the  skin  is  mellow  and  elastic  to 
the  touch,  it  indicates  good  "  handling."  Animals  possessed  of 
such  skins  usually  fatten  rapidly,  whereas  those  with  heavy 
stiff  skins  often  fatten  slowly. 

The  food  influences  the  handling  to  a  marked  degree.  When 
liberally  fed,  especially  on  oily  laxative  foods,  the  skin  is  soft 
and  elastic  and  the  hair  usually  silky  and  fine.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  scantily  fed  or  with  improper  foods,  the  skin  often 
becomes    tightly    attached    to    the    body,    and    it    feels   dry 


200  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  paper-like.  Feeders  possessed  of  rough,  coarse  hair, 
tight,  harsh  skin,  rough,  heavy  bones  with  coarse  joints, 
prominent  hips,  and  rough,  open  shoulders  are  objectionable 
as  feeders. 

Condition  of  the  feeder.  —  In  inspecting  a  lot  of  cattle  with 
a  view  to  choosing  feeders,  it  is  important  to  note  their  condition 
in  respect  to  thrift  and  fleshiness.  The  indications  of  thrift 
are  a  good  coat  of  silky  hair ;  soft,  pliable  skin ;  a  clean  and 
mild  eye ;  absence  of  discharge  from  the  nostrils  ;  and  the 
dung  or  excreta  of  proper  consistency,  neither  too  loose  nor  too 
hard  and  dry.  Thriftiness  is  of  much  importance  if  steers  are 
to  make  economical  and  profitable  beef-producing  animals. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  thinner  the  steer  at  the  time  of 
beginning  the  feeding  operations,  the  more  rapid  and  the  more 
economical  as  well  as  the  more  profitable  the  gains  will  be  pro- 
viding, of  course,  that  the  animal  is  thrifty  and  that  he  has 
not  been  stunted  in  his  growth.  If  the  animal  has  been 
stunted,  it  is  likely  to  prove  a  disappointment  in  the  feed  lot. 

Uniformity  among  feeders.  —  Cattle  chosen  for  feeding  pur- 
poses should  be  of  uniform  age,  color,  type,  breeding,  condi- 
tion, and  quality.  While  such  uniformity  will  not  add  to  their 
ability  to  take  on  flesh  or  to  make  economical  gains,  yet  it 
will  add  very  materially  to  their  general  appearance  when  on 
the  market.  Such  a  lot  of  fat  steers  will  command  a  much 
higher  price  than  a  similar  lot  of  mixed  colors,  or  of  mixed 
types,  or  of  mixed  breeding,  or  even  of  mixed  ages. 

Detail  characters  of  beef  cattle 

Beef  cattle  are  as  a  rule  not  so  well  trained  as  are  dairy 
cattle,  and  it  is  not  so  possible  to  handle  them  effectively, 
yet  a  consideration  of  details  is  essential  if  one  is  to  make  a 
success  of  choosing  animals  to  feed  for  beef  production. 

The  head  is  usually  considered  a  good  index  in  the  choice  of 
a  feeder.     It  should  be  broad  and  short,  as  such  accompanies  a 


CHOOSING  FOB   BEEF  201 

low-set,  thick,  and  wide  body;  whereas  a  long,  slim  face  is  usually 
associated  with  a  long,  slim  body.  The  face  and  cheeks  should 
be  full  and  deep  with  a  broad,  strong  lower  jaw.  The  nostrils 
should  be  large,  indicating  that  there  is  an  abundant  lung 
capacity.  The  eyes  should  be  large,  prominent,  and  mild,  in- 
dicating a  quiet  temperament.  The  feeder  should  be  quiet,  as 
a  restless,  nervous  animal  usually  proves  unsatisfactory.  The 
forehead  should  be  somewhat  prominent  and  covered  with  a 
mass  of  wavy  hair.  The  ear  should  be  of  medium  size,  pointed, 
and  covered  inside  and  out  with  fine  silky  hair,  and  should  be 
neatly  attached  to  the  head.  If  horns  are  present,  they  should 
be  of  fine  texture  and  free  from  coarseness. 

The  neck  should  be  short  and  thick,  tapering  gradually  from 
the  shoulders  to  the  head.  It  should  be  neatly  attached  to  the 
head  and  smoothly  blended  with  the  shoulder. 

The  fore-quarters.  —  The  shoulders  should  be  well  laid  in, 
smoothly  covered  with  flesh,  compact,  and  blending  neatly  with 
the  body.  The  crops  or  withers  should  be  full,  thick,  and  broad. 
Both  shoulders  and  crops  should  be  covered  uniformly  with 
flesh.  Rough,  angular  shoulders,  unevenly  covered  with  flesh, 
are  among  the  most  common  defects  of  feeding  cattle. 

The  body.  —  The  chest  should  be  wide,  deep,  and  full,  with  light 
development  of  brisket,  yet  sufficient  to  fill  out  the  squareness 
of  the  body.  Narrow-chested  animals  are  as  a  rule  poor  feeders. 
The  ribs  should  be  well  sprung  and  long,  giving  an  abundance 
of  room  for  the  vital  organs,  such  as  lungs  and  heart,  and  to 
provide  large  digestive  capacity.  The  back  should  be  broad 
and  straight  from  the  shoulder  to  the  tail-head  and  covered  with 
thick,  even  flesh.  The  loin  should  be  wide  and  joining  the 
body  to  the  hinci-quarters,  with  little  or  no  departure  from  a 
straight  line. 

The  hind-quarters.  —  As  a  whole  the  hind-quarters  in  the 
feeder  should  be  wide,  long,  and  deep.  The  hips  should  be  wide 
and  in  proportion  with  the  other  parts,  but  not  prominent.     The 


202  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

rump  should  be  long  from  the  hips  to  the  tail-head,  with  pin- 
bones  and  thurls  rather  high  and  wide,  but  not  prominent.  The 
rump  should  be  level  and  free  from  hollowness.  The  thighs 
should  be  full  and  fleshed  well  down  to  the  hock,  with  twist  full. 
The  fat  steer.  —  In  choosing  a  fat  steer,  one  must  keep  in  mind 
the  demands  of  the  butchers.  They  desire  a  steer  to  dress  with 
a  relatively  small  percentage  of  offal ;  with  a  relatively  large 
percentage  of  meat  in  the  region  of  the  valuable  cuts ;  and  an 
animal  that  is  in  the  proper  condition  to  slaughter,  that  is, 
neither  over  nor  under  fed.  Fullness  at  the  base  of  the  tongue 
and  just  in  front  of  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  a  full  twist,  a 
large  mellow  cod  (scrotum),  a  full,  thick  flank  that  stands  out 
and  rolls  as  the  animal  walks,  fullness  at  the  tail-head  and  along 
the  rump,  indicate  that  degree  of  fatness  essential  to  the  highest 
quality  of  beef. 


CHAPTER  IX 

FEEDING   DAIRY   CATTLE 

Perhaps  no  other  question  in  connection  with  the  propagation 
and  care  of  farm  animals  has  received  so  much  consideration  as 
that  of  feeding  the  dairy  cow.  Many  and  difficult  are  the  prob- 
lems involved.  To  catalogue  and  discuss  them  all  would  require 
a  work  larger  than  this  manual.  It  is  not,  therefore,  in  this 
connection,  proposed  to  enter  into  an  elaborate  discussion,  but 
only  to  call  attention  to  some  of  the  more  important  items  in 
connection  with  the  most  successful  practice. 

FOOD    REQUIREMENTS     FOR    MILK 

The  quantity  of  food  required  by  a  milking  cow  depends  on 
many  factors,  chief  of  which  are  the  kind  of  food,  the  quantity 
of  milk  yielded,  the  quality  of  the  milk,  as  well  as  the  individual- 
ity, the  weight  and  age  of  the  animal. 

We  have  already  observed,  in  connection  with  feeding  the 
horse,  that  foods  vary  widely  in  the  amount  of  energy  they  con- 
tain. In  addition  to  this  they  also  vary  greatly  in  their  in- 
fluence upon  milk  secretion;  that  is  to  say,  certain  foods  act 
favorably  on  the  secreting  glands,  whereas  other  foods  tend 
towards  the  production  of  fat.  The  exact  action  of  the  foods  in- 
fluencing secretion  is  not  understood,  nor  is  their  ultimate  effect 
upon  the  animal  definitely  known.  Chief  among  the  foods 
tending  to  economize  milk  production  are  succulent  foods,  such 
as  green  forage  crops,  silage,  and  roots;  by-products  such  as 
bran,  brewers'  grains,  and  dried  distillers'  grains,  and  the  legu- 
minous hays,  such  as  clover  and  alfalfa. 

203 


204 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


J 


The  quantity  of  food  which  the  milking  cow  requires  wft\  be 
influenced  by  the  amount  of  milk  which  she  yields.  <  This  was 
taken  into  account  by  Wolff  and  Lehman  in  the;r  standard. 
Thus  we  notice  that  a  1000-pound  cow  yielding.  11  pounds  of 
milk  daily  requires  25  pounds  of  dry  ^matter,  whereas  one  yield- 
ing 22  pounds  of  milk  per  day  requires  29  pounds  of  dry-matter 
in  her  ration  :  — 

Wolff-Lehman  standard,  showing  the  amount  of  food  required  per  1000 
pounds  live  weight  for  the  growing  and  the  mature  cow  yielding  varying 
quantities  of  milk 


Dry- 
Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Nutritive 

Condition  u*'  animal 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Ratio 

Growing  Cattle,  Dairy 
Breeds 

Age,  Mo. 

Weight 

2-3 

150 

23 

4.0 

13.0 

2.0 

1 

4.5 

3-6 

300 

24 

3.0 

12.8 

1.0 

1 

5.1 

6-12 

500 

27 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

1 

6.8 

12-18 

700 

26 

1.8 

12.5 

0.4 

1 

7.5 

18-24 

900 

26 
25 

1.5 

1.6 

12.0 
10.0 

0.3 
0.3 

1 

8.5 

Milking  Cows,  when 
yielding  Daily 

11.0  lb.  of  milk 

1:6.7 

16.6  lb.  of  milk 

27 

2.0 

11.0 

0.4 

1:6.0 

22.0  lb.  of  milk 

29 

2.5 

13.0 

0.5 

1:5.7 

27.5  lb.  of  milk 

32 

3.3 

13.0 

0.8 

1:4.5 

These  standards  were  arranged  to  meet  the  need  of  the  average 
farm  cow  under  normal  conditions.  They  were  not  intended  to 
be  absolute  and  fixed,  but  to  be  varied  in  practice  as  circum- 
stances suggest;     Of  late  years  they  have  been  subjected  to 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


205 


much  criticism  by  investigators  in  the  United  States,  who.feel 
that  they  call  for  more  protein  than  is  needed,  especially  by 
those  animals  giving  a  rather  large  flow  of  milk  rather  poor  in 
butter-fat.  These  investigators  object  to  the  fact  that  the 
standards  do  not  take  into  account  the  quality  as  well  as  the 
quantity  of  the  milk. 


Tig.  71.  —  Holstein-Friesian  Bull  "King  Segis"  at  six  Years  Old.     The 
sire  of  fifty  A.  R.  O.  daughters  owned  by  H.  A.  Moyer,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

The  Holstein-Friesian  breed  of  dairy  cattle  originated  in  Holland.  While  the 
Jersey  is  noted  for  the  quality  of  milk,  the  Holstein  is  noted  for  the  quantity  or 
the  large  flow  of  milk.  It  is  often  spoken  of  as  "the  milk  cow."  In  size  they 
are  the  largest  dairy  breed,  mature  bulls  weighing  1700  to  2200  pounds,  the 
cows  1400  to  1800  pounds.  The  color  is  black  and  white.  In  America  this 
breed  is  very  popular  for  milk  production  to  supply  the  cities. 


The  quality  of  the  milk  as  well  as  the  quantity  has  an  in- 
fluence on  the  amount  of  food  required  by  a  milking  cow.  For 
example,  the  daily  production  of  22  pounds  of  3  per  cent 
milk  involves  the  elaboration  of  approximately  2.5  pounds 
of  milk  solids,  whereas  if  the  milk  contained  6  per  cent  fat,  it 


206 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


would  require  approximately  3  pounds  of  milk  solids,  or  an  actual 
secretion  of  one-half  pound  more  solid  matter  in  the  milk.  Thus 
the  cow  yielding  the  6  per  cent  milk  would  require  more  food 
than  the  cow  giving  only  3  per  cent  milk. 

Haecker  has  conducted  many  experiments  in  an  endeavor  to 
gain  some  knowledge  of  the  relation  between  the  percentage  of 
fat  in  the  milk  and  the  food  required  to  produce  the  same. 
From  these  experiments  he  has  calculated  the  nutrients  — 
protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  —  required  for  the  production 
of  a  given  amount  of  fat,  and  using  this  as  a  basis,  has  con- 
structed standards  for  milk  production  :  — 

HAECKER' S    FEEDING-STANDARD  —  MATURE    COW1 

Table  showing  food  of  maintenance  per  100  pounds  live  weight  and  nutri- 
ents required  for  the  production  of  1  pound  of  milk  testing  a  given  per 
cent  of  butter-fat 


For  maintenance 


Milk  testing  2.5 
Milk  testing  3.0 
Milk  testing  4.0 
Milk  testing  5.0 
Milk  testing  6.0 
Milk  testing  6.5 


Protein 


0.0700 


0.0362 
0.0397 
0.0467 
0.0537 
0.0607 
0.0642 


Carbohydrate 


0.700 


0.164 
0.181 
0.214 
0.247 
0.280 
0.296 


Fat 


0.0100 


0.0124 
0.0136 
0.0159 
0.0182 
0.0206 
0.0217 


To  illustrate  the  method  of  using  the  table  to  determine  the 
amount  of  food  required  in  milk  production,  choose  the  case  of  a 
1000-pound  cow  yielding  22  pounds  of  milk  daily.  Let  us  as- 
sume that  in  one  case  it  contains  3  per  cent  fat  and  in  a  second 
that  it  contains  6  per  cent. 


1  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  79. 


FEEDING  DAIRY    CATTLE 


207 


From  the  table  we  learn  :  — 


Nutrients  for  1  lb.  of  3  per  cent  milk   . 
Nutrients  for  maintenance  100  lb.  weight 


Pro. 


0.0397 
0.0700 


C.  H. 


0.181 
0.700 


Fat 


0.0136 
0.0100 


For  cow  weighing  1000  pounds  and  yielding  22  pounds  of  3  per 
cent  milk :  — 


Pro. 

C.  H. 

Fat 

Ratio 

Nutrients  for  22  lb.  3  per  cent  milk  . 
Nutrients  for  1000  lb.  maintenance  . 

0.87 
0.70 

4.00 
7.00 

0.30 
0.07 

1  57 

11.00 

0.37 

1:7.5 

For  cow  weighing  1000  pounds  and  yielding  22  pounds  of  6 
per  cent  milk:  — 


Pro. 

C.  H. 

Fat 

Ratio 

Nutrients  for  22  lb.  6  per  cent  milk  . 
Nutrients  for  1000  lb.  maintenance  . 

1.34 
0.70 

6.16 
7.00 

0.45 
0.07 

Haecker  ration  required       .... 
Wolff-Lehman  standard        .... 

2  04 
2  50 

13.16 
13.00 

0.52 
0.50 

1:7.0 
1:5.7 

Thus  we  see  that  even  though  the  flow  was  22  pounds  in  either 
case,  the  food  required  is  much  greater  in  the  case  of  the  milk 
rich  in  fat.  By  comparing  these  with  the  Wolff-Lehman  stand- 
ards we  note  that  they  are  approximately  the  same,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  protein.  According  to  Haecker  the  protein  required, 
even  in  the  6  per  cent  milk,  is  much  less  than  that  called  for  in 
the  Wolff-Lehman  standard. 


208  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

While  no  doubt  some  such  formal  standard  as  the  Wolff- 
Lehman  or  the  Haecker  should  be  followed  in  calculating  the 
amount  of  food  required  for  milk  production,  yet  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  there  are  many  difficulties  encountered  in  feeding 
dairy  cattle  that  standards  cannot  decide.  Chief  among  these 
are  the  digestibility  of  the  food  and  the  individuality  of  the  ani- 
mal. Our  methods  of  arriving  at  the  digestibility  of  foods  are 
crude,  and  foods  vary  widely  in  their  digestibility,  and  either  of 
these  difficulties  may  seriously  interfere  with  such  close  figuring 
as  is  recommended  in  the  Haecker  standards ;  that  is  to  say,  the 
digestive  values  assigned  the  foods  may  easily  be  so  erroneous  as 
to  offset  any  saving  that  seemingly  occurs  from  such  calcula- 
tion. 

The  individuality  of  the  cow  is  a  factor  which  standards  can- 
not take  into  account.  Cows  vary  widely  in  the  amount  of  food 
they  will  consume  for  the  production  of  milk,  some  requiring 

twice  as  much  food  to  produce 
a  given  product  as  others. 
Some  hold  that  this  variation 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cow 
will  consume  the  .feed,  though 
she  does  not  need  it,  and  that 
by  limiting  her  ration  she  can 
**$J  often  be  made  to  produce  at 

a  profit.      That  there  is  a  vast 
Fig.  72.  —  Holstein-Friesian    Cow  difference  among  individuals  in 

b?jTnEArfmAanAMITY'''     ^^  the   amount   of   food   required 

for  a  given  product  must  not 
be  lost  sight  of  if  one  is  to  succeed  in  the  dairy  business. 

The  age  of  the  animal  also  has  an  influence  on  the  amount  of 
food  required  for  milk  production.  This  subject  has  also  been 
investigated  by  Haecker.  His  experiments  show  that  the  heifer 
requires  considerably  more  nutrients  for  the  production  of  a 
given  amount  of  fat  than  the  mature  cow.     From  these  experi- 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


209 


ments  he  constructed  a  standard  similar  to  the  one  for  mature 
cows :  — 

HAECKER's    FEEDING-STANDARD  —  HEIFERS  1 

Table  showing  food  of  maintenance  per  100  pounds  live  weight  and  nutri- 
ents required  for  the  production  of  1  pound  of  milk  testing  a  given  per 
cent  of  butter- fat 


For  maintenance 


Milk  testing  2.5 
Milk  testing  3.0 
Milk  testing  4.0 
Milk  testing  5.0 
Milk  testing  6.0 
Milk  testing  6.5 


Protein 


0.0" 


0.0378 
0.0443 
0.0573 
0.0703 
0.0833 
0.0898 


Carbohydrates 


0.700 


0.188 
0.218 
0.287 
0.338 
0.398 
0.428 


Fat 


0.0100 


0.0130 
0.0152 
0.0197 
0.0242 
0.0287 
0.0310 


To  illustrate  how  these  differ  from  the  mature  cow  we  will 
take  the  same  example,  that  of  a  heifer  weighing  1000  pounds 
and  yielding  22  pounds  of  3  and  6  per  cent  milk.  While  a 
heifer  might  not  weigh  as  much  as  this,  the  figuring  is  on  a  per- 
centage basis  and  the  results  will  be  the  same. 

For  a  heifer  weighing  1000  pounds  and  yielding  22  pounds 
of  3  per  cent  milk :  — 


Nutrients  for  22  lb.  3  per  cent  milk 
Nutrients  for  1000  lb.  maintenance 
Heifer,  Haecker  ration  required  . 
Mature  cow,  Haecker'ration  required 


Protein 

C.  H. 

Fat 

0.98 
0.70 

4.80 
7.00 

0.33 
0.07 

1.68 
1.57 

11.80 
11.00 

0.40 
0.37 

Ratio 


7.5 

7.5 


1  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  78. 
P 


210 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


For  a  heifer  weighing  1000  pounds  and   yielding  22  pounds 
of  6  per  cent  milk :  — 


Nutrients  for  22  lb.  of  6  per  cent  milk 
Nutrients  for  1000  lb.  maintenance 
Heifer,  Haecker  ration  required 
Mature  cow,  Haecker  ration  required 
Wolff-Lehman  standard    .... 


Protein 


1.83 
0.70 


2.53 
2.04 
2.50 


c.  H. 


8.76 
7.00 


15.76 
13.16 
13.00 


Fat 


0.62 
0.07 


0.69 
0.52 
0.50 


Ratio 


1:6.8 
1:7.0 
1:5.7 


According  to  this  standard,  the  heifer  needs  considerably  more 
nutrients  than  the  mature  cow,  and  in  the  case  of  high  produc- 
tion calls  for  more  nutrients  than  the  Wolff-Lehman  standards 
provide.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  she  needs  nutrients  in 
building  up  her  own  body  as  well  as  for  the  production  of  milk. 
It  is  worthy  of  note,  however,  that  in  all  these  cases  the  Wolff- 
Lehman  ratio  is  much  more  narrow  than  the  Haecker  ratio. 

Feeding-standards  merely  guides.  —  From  the  foregoing  discus- 
sion of  the  food  requirement  for  milk  it  must  be  apparent  that 
while  one  should  use  a  standard,  it  should  be  considered  only  as 
a  guide  and  be  modified  to  meet  the  conditions,  such  as  the  indi- 
viduality of  the  animal  and  the  prices  of  foods.  It  is  not  prac- 
ticable to  attempt  to  follow  standards  with  strict  mathematical 
accuracy,  any  more  than  to  follow  them  slavishly  with  fer- 
tilizers or  with  quantities  of  seed  per  acre. 


EFFECT    OF    FOOD    ON    COMPOSITION    OF   MILK 

Of  all  the  problems  connected  with  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle, 
perhaps  none  has  received  more  attention  than  the  effect  of  food 
upon  the  composition  and  quality  of  the  milk.  There  is  a  pre- 
vailing opinion  among  practical  dairymen  that  one  can  improve 
the  composition  of  the  milk,  particularly  with  respect  to  the  per- 
centage of  fat,  by  liberal  feeding.     This,  however,  is  one  of  the 


FEEDING   DAIRY   CATTLE  211 

results  that  careful  investigations  have  been  trying  to  secure  for 
the  last  three  decades,  and  so  far  they  have  met  with  little  or  no 
success. 

It  is  asserted  that  the  food  may  affect  the  milk  in  many 
wajrs,  the  two  most  important  being  its  composition  and  its 
flavor.  There  are  three  ways  in  which  the  composition 
might  be  affected  :  First,  by  changing  the  proportion  of  water 
and  total  solid  matter ;  second,  by  changing  the  proportion  of 
fat,  sugar,  and  proteids ;  and  third,  by  changing  the  constitu- 
ents or  consistency  of  the  fat. 

Effect  of  food  on  total  solids.  —  In  the  great  majority  of  cases 
the  conclusion  of  experiments  is  that  no  consistent  relation 
seems  to  exist  between  the  quantity  or  character  of  the  food 
and  the  composition  of  the  milk.  In  a  few  cases  a  temporary 
change  occurred  in  the  milk  immediately  after  changing  the 
food,  but  in  most  cases  the  milk  soon  returned  to  its  normal 
composition.  While  in  a  very  small  number  of  experiments  the 
milk  appeared  to  undergo  slight  permanent  change,  yet  one  is 
forced  to  the  conclusion  that  the  quality  of  the  milk  cannot  be 
changed  at  will  by  the  feed.  It  would  seem  that  the  treatment 
of  the  cattle  has  a  greater  influence  upon  the  character  of  the 
milk  than  does  the  food  consumed. 

Effect  of  food  on  the  percentage  of  fat.  —  The  idea  prevails 
that  it  is  possible  to  feed  fat  into  milk.  This  problem  has  been 
the  subject  of  careful  experimentation.  After  a  painstaking 
perusal  of  the  work  one  is  forced  to  conclude  that  it  is  not  pos- 
sible materially  and  permanently  to  increase  or  diminish  the 
percentage  of  fat  by  changes  in  the  amount  and  character  of 
the  food,  providing,  of  course,  that  the  animals  receive  sufficient 
nutrition  in  all  cases.  It  may  be  possible  with  a  cow  that  has 
been  insufficiently  fed  and  has  never  had  a  chance  to  develop, 
to  feed  her  such  an  abundance  of  rich  milk-producing  food  as 
slightly  and  permanently  to  increase  the  percentage  of  fat  in 
her  milk ;  but  beyond  this  we  probably  cannot  go. 


212  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Food  and  flavor  of  milk.  —  It  is  definitely  known  that  certain 
foods,  especially  if  fed  in  large  quantities,  impart  bad  odors  to 
the  milk.  Chief  among  the  foods  producing  such  deleterious 
effects  are  cabbage,  turnips,  onions,  silage,  wild  leeks,  and  the 
like.  It  is  held  that  such  odors  may  be  imparted  to  the  milk  in 
two  ways :  First,  by  transference  through  the  animal,  and 
second,  by  absorption  from  the  air  of  the  stable.  Concerning 
many  of  these  points  we  have  little  definite  evidence,  and 
there  is  great  difference  of  opinion  as  to  what  odors  are  absorbed 
from  the  air  and  what  are  transferred  through  the  animal. 
There  can  be  little  doubt,  however,  but  that  the  feeding  of  certain 
foods  before  milking  imparts  certain  flavors  to  the  milk,  and  that 
such  flavors  are  not  detected  when  the  food  is  given  after  milk- 
ing. It  is  advised  particularly  that  silage  be  not  fed  just  be- 
fore milking. 

Order  of  supplying  food.  —  Because  of  the  supposed  ill  effect 
of  some  foods  in  giving  odors  to  the  milk,  the  order  of  supplying 
certain  of  these  foods  assumes  much  importance.  In  the  case 
of  cabbage,  turnips,  and  the  like,  it  is  perhaps  best  that  they  be 
fed  after  milking.  In  the  case  of  hay,  which  is  likely  to  contain 
more  or  less  dust,  it  is  perhaps  best  to  feed  this  after  milking 
also,  and  in  either  of  these  cases  it  would  necessitate  the  feeding 
of  grain  first.  Perhaps  the  ideal  way,  when  the  food  is  of  such 
a  nature  to  permit,  is  to  feed  the  grain  and  succulent  food  to- 
gether, sprinkling  the  grain  over  the  succulent  food,  and  then 
when  these  are  both  cleaned  up,  to  feed  the  hay.  A  good  order 
for  the  day's  work  is  as  follows  :  In  the  morning  milk  first,  then 
feed  grain,  then  silage,  clean  stable,  water,  feed  hay,  groom  the 
animals,  then  on  pleasant  days  turn  out  for  an  hour  or  so.  In 
the  afternoon  water,  clean  stables,  feed  grain,  milk,  feed  silage, 
arrange  bedding,  and  lastly  feed  some  long  hay.  Sufficient 
attention  is  not  given  to  the  day's  program,  in  the  dairy 
business. 

Effect  of  food  on  quantity  of  milk.  —  Occasionally  the  state- 


FEEDING   DAIRY  CATTLE  213 

ment  that  we  cannot  increase  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk 
by  feeding  is  taken  to  mean  that  we  cannot  increase  the  total 
fat  yield.  This,  of  course,  is  not  true.  We  can  very  materially 
increase  the  total  yield  of  fat  by  increasing  the  total  flow  of 
milk  by  liberal  feeding.  This  is  demonstrated  on  every  hand. 
On  the  farms  where  no  succulent  food  is  fed  during  the  winter 
and  very  little  grain,  it  is  well  known  that  the  cows  will  give  a 
much  larger  flow  when  turned  to  pasture  in  the  spring.  On  the 
average  the  percentage  of  fat  will  remain  the  same. 

WATERING    THE    MILKING    COW 

The  milch  cow  requires  a  liberal  supply  of  water.  She  not  only 
has  the  demands  of  her  body  to  meet,  but  must  supply  that  in 
the  milk  as  well.  When  we  recall  that  cows  have  yielded  over 
129  pounds  of  milk  in  a  single  day,  we  can  see  the  urgent  need  of 
a  large  supply  of  water.  The  question  is  often  raised  as  to  meth- 
ods of  watering:  whether  to  make  provisions  for  a  constant 
supply  of  water,  or  to  supply  the  animal  at  certain  intervals,  two 
or  three  times  daily.  It  has  been  fairly  well  proved  that  cattle 
provided  with  water  constantly  give  a  slightly  larger  yield  than 
when  watered  twice  daily,  though  the  difference  is  not  marked. 
This  observation  has  led  to  the  placing  of  small  troughs  or  vessels 
in  the  stable  immediately  in  front  of  the  animals  (Fig.  73). 
If  these  vessels  can  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  odor,  the  practice 
is  a  good  one.  In  many  instances,  however,  these  individual 
watering  devices  are  traps  of  filth  and  foul-smelling  water,  and 
produce  anything  but  good  results. 

There  are  two  factors  that  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  water- 
ing the  milking  cow  :  regularity  and  temperature  of  water  in 
winter.  Whatever  method  of  watering  is  employed,  the  animal 
should  be  watered  regularly  and  uniformly.  When  we  recall  the 
large  amount  of  water  necessary  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  high- 
producing  cow,  it  becomes  apparent  that  she  should  not  be  com- 
pelled to  drink  ice-cold  water.     There  are  many  objections  to 


214 


II AN  UAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


such  practice ;  in  the  first  place  it  requires  much  food  to  heat  this 
water  up  to  the  body  temperature,  and  the  animal  will  not 
drink  the  required  amount.     Such  large  drafts  of  cold  water  may 


Fig.  73.  —  Interior  View  of  Dairy  Barn,  showing  Feeding  Alley,  Man- 
gers, and  Individual  Watering  Device.     Bowen  &  Quick,  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

cause  indigestion  and  in  some  cases  may  lead  to  abortion.-  To 
take  the  chill  off  drinking  water  in  winter  is  now  an  accepted 
practice  with  progressive  dairymen. 


FEEDING    THE    MILKING    COW 

Since  the  quantity  of  milk  produced  by  a  cow  depends  largely 
on  the  amount  and  character  of  the  feed  supplied,  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  feeding  be  given  careful  considera- 
tion. Developing  the  milking  cow  calls  for  skill  second  to  none 
other  among  farm  animals.  The  milking  cow  should  be  fed 
liberally,  frequently,  and  regularly,  the  amount  given  being  regu- 


FEEDING   DAIRY   CATTLE  215 

lated  by  the  size  of  the  animal  and  by  the  quantity  as  well  as  the 
quality  of  her  milk.  Wernay  sa^,  in  general,  that'  a  good  dairy 
cow  in  full  flow  should/receive /approximately  wo  and  one-half 
pounds  of  dry-matte/  for  each  hundred  pounds  of  weight.  Of 
this,  at  least  one-half  to  two-thirds  should  be  digestible  matter. 
Cows  giving  very  large  yields  may  be  fed  considerably  larger 
quantities  to  adyantage,  while  the  low-producers  should  receive 
less.  The  reader  may  recur  to  the  general  discussion  of  food 
requirements  as  detailed  on  pages  203  to  210. 

Feeding  dairy  cattle  naturally  divides  itself  into  two  parts : 
the  summer  period  when  the  cows  are  at  pasture,  and  the  winter 
period  when  they  are  stabled  and  fed  their  entire  ration. 

Summet  feeding  of  dairy  cattle.  —  Pasture  is  one  of  the  essen- 
tials of  successful  dairy  farming.  The  favorable  influence  of 
early  spring  pasture  on  the  secretion  of  milk  is  well  known.  The 
flow  is  materially  increased,  as  is  the  total  yield  of  fat,  though 
the  percentage  of  fat  is  ^perhaps  not  materially  altered.  True, 
some  years  the  percentage  of  fat  seems  to  increase,  but  other 
years  ijt  decreases  in  tile  same  animal ;  and  the  food  is  prob- 
ably not  the  cause. 

As  a  rule,  in  the  early  part  of  the  pasture  season,  the  cows  will 
obtain  sufficient  food  from  the  pastures  alone,  but  later  in  the 
season  it  will  often  be  necessary  to  supplement  the  pasture. 
This  may  be  done  by  soiling,  —  cutting  the  forage  and  feeding  it 
to  the  cattle  green,  —  with  silage,  or  with  grain. 

Experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  the  feeding  of  grain  to  cows 
on  pasture  is  profitable  only  when  there  is  scarcity  of  pasturage. 
In  fact,  they  will  consume  but  little  while  the  pasture  is  abun- 
dant and  nutritious.  It  would  seem  wise,  however,  in  case  the 
animals  eat  it,  to  provide  a  few  pounds  of  wheat  bran  or  bran 
and  oats  mixed  particularly  in  the  case  of  heavy  milkers,  as 
this  will  insure  maximum  production. 

Protecting  cows  from  flies.  —  The  marked  falling  off  in  the  milk 
flow  of  the  dairy  cow  in  the  late  summer  and  fall  is  looked  upon 


216  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

as  unavoidable  and  is  attributed  to  the  worry  of  the  stock  by 
flies.  This  conclusion  is  not  borne  out  by  the  experimental  data 
available.  Many  experiments  have  been  conducted  to  deter- 
mine to  what  extent  the  worry  caused  by  the  flies  affects  the  yield 
of  milk  and  fat.  In  these  experiments  the  flies  were  excluded 
from  the  animals  at  intervals  and  a  careful  record  kept  of  the 
production.  These  records  show  that  the  flies  had  very  little  if 
any  effect  upon  the  yield  either  of  milk  or  fat.  The  failure  to 
provide  an  abundance  of  succulent  forage  to  supplement  the 
parched  pastures,  thus  compelling  the  animals  to  graze  over 
large  areas  in  the  hot  sun,  seems  to  be  the  principal  factor  in 
causing  a  decreased  production  in  the  later  summer. 

Winter  feeding  of  dairy  cattle.  —  Winter  feeding  is  the  most 
expensive,  and  the  profit  to  be  derived  from  a  dairy  cow  will 
depend,  in  a  large  part,  upon  the  economy  of  the  winter  ration. 
This  does  not  mean  that  she  should  be  fed  sparingly  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  good  dairy  cow  should  be  fed  abundantly 
with  a  variety  of  nutritious  feeds.  Feed  a  variety  whenever 
possible.     A  good  dairy  cow  should  make  economical  use  of 

-seven  to  ten  pounds  of   grain 

4  ^fi  JH        VAM&^F     Per  ^a-v'  anc*  n^een  *°  twenty 

1^    Wm  ■!  mk    pounds  of  dry  forage,  or  better 

HJF  ™       vml'  s^*'  th^y  to  forty  pounds  of 

hAtdr^^m  ^^  succulent   food  and  five   to  ten 

pounds  of    dry  forage  or  hay, 
$MI|i  the  exact  amounts  to  be  varied 

to  meet  conditions. 
jfiG.  74.  —  Holstein-Friesian  Cow        Grain,    or   concentrated   feeds. 

"Daisy    Pauline      Paul     2nd."  „,.  .        *    , 

Owned  by  John  Arfman.  —  The  more  common  grams  ted 

to  dairy  cattle  are  the  cereals 
—  corn,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  rye  —  and  the  mill  refuse,  of 
which  there  is  an  almost  endless  variety  upon  the  market. 
The  amount  of  grain  that  can  be  fed  with  profit  to  a  dairy 
cow  will  depend  on  the  price  of  the  food,  the  yield  of  the  cow, 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  217 

and  the  price  obtained  for  her  products.  Some  have  suggested 
the  feeding  of  as  many  pounds  of  grain  per  day  as  the  cow 
produces  pounds  of  butter-fat  per  week.  In  determining  the 
amount  and  kind  of  grain  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account 
the  forage  that  is  to  go  with  it.  For  example,  in  many  dairies 
it  is  felt  that  bran  may  be  replaced  ton  for  ton  by  carefully 
cured  alfalfa  hay,  or  by  five  tons  of  pea-vine  silage  when  not 
too  succulent. 

Dry  forage.  —  The  more  common  dry  forage  crops  fed  to 
dairy  cattle  are  clover,  alfalfa,  or  mixed  hays  and  corn  stalks. 
Occasionally  pure  timothy  hay  is  fed,  though  this  is  not  to  be 
recommended,  particularly  if  cut  late.  Straws  of  the  various 
small  grains  are  also  used,  but  they  are  even  more  worthless  as 
a  dairy  cow  feed  than  is  timothy  hay.  Hay  cut  early  is  more 
valuable  ton  for  ton,  though  the  yield  obtained  per  acre  will 
not  be  so  great.  It  is  preferable  to  feed  the  hay  long,  if 
fed  in  connection  with  silage.  The  exact  amount  of  dry 
forage  that  should  be  fed  cannot  be  stated,  as  it  will  depend 
on  the  amount  of  grain  and  whether  or  not  silage  is  being 
used.  Let  the  rule  be  to  feed  all  the  hay  the  animal  will  eat 
with  relish. 

Succulent  feeds.  —  Some  kind  of  succulent  food  should  be 
fed  the  dairy  cow  during  her  entire  lactation  period.  The 
common  succulent  foods  used  in  feeding  dairy  cattle  are  silage, 
roots,  or  tubers.  Silage  is  preferable,  but  if  the  herd  is  not 
large  enough  to  warrant  the  construction  of  a  silo,  roots  make 
a  good  substitute.  The  amount  of  succulence  it  is  profitable 
to  feed  will  depend  much  on  the  attendant  conditions.  Thirty 
to  forty  pounds  serve  most  conditions.  If  the  supply  is  limited, 
it  is  perhaps  best  to  make  it  last  throughout  the  winter  period ; 
that  is  to  say,  if  one  has  enough  succulent  food  to  feed  twenty 
pounds  throughout  the  season  or  forty  pounds  for  half  the 
season,  it  would  be  preferable  to  feed  the  twenty  throughout 
the  season.     This  again  might  be  modified  by  conditions;   for 


218  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

example,  if  one  had  a  few  cows  only  and  fed  but  twenty  pounds 
per  head  and  day,  the  silage  would  be  likely  to  spoil  on  top, 
in  which  case  it  would  be  necessary  to  feed  it  faster. 

There  are  many  ways  of  procuring  succulent  foods,  such  as 
preserving  green  foods  in  the  silo,  raising  of  roots  and  tubers, 
procuring  refuse  from  the  breweries,  distilleries,  and  sugar  fac- 
tories, and  soiling. 

Silage.  —  Green  food  preserved  in  the  silo  is  coming  to  be  a 
very  common  succulence  for  the  dairy  cow.  While  there  are 
many  green  plants,  such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  cowpea  vines,  and 
the  like,  preserved  in  this  way,  yet  corn  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant silage  crop.  No  other  plant  will  furnish  nearly  so  much 
silage  per  acre  as  corn.  All  silage  contains  a  very  high  per- 
centage of  water,  and  for  this  reason  is  bulky.  As  a  succulent 
food  for  milking  cows,  good  corn  silage  is  hard  to  improve  on. 
It  is  very  palatable,  readily  digestible,  and  stimulates  the  flow 
of  milk  second  only  to  grass. 

Roots  and  tubers.  —  When  the  construction  of  a  silo  is  not 
convenient,  one  can  procure  a  very  good  succulent  food  by 
raising  roots  and  tubers.  While  there  are  many  roots  and 
tubers,  such  as  potatoes,  beets,  flat  turnips,  rutabagas,  and  the 
like,  that  may  be  grown,  mangels  are  by  far  the  most  important 
root-crop  as  a  succulent  food  for  cattle.  These  roots  all  possess 
a  very  high  percentage  of  water,  even  more  than  silage.  As  a 
succulent  food  for  the  milking  cow  they  are  excellent,  being 
palatable,  almost  entirely  digestible,  and  stimulating  the  flow 
of  milk.  While  the  amount  that  may  be  fed  varies  according 
to  conditions,  the  same  as  in  silage,  one  may  feed  from  35  to  50 
pounds  daily  per  1000  pounds  of  live  weight. 

Soiling.  —  As  we  have  already  seen,  soiling  consists  of  cut- 
ting green  crops  and  feeding  them  fresh.  Successful  and 
economical  soiling  means  furnishing  to  the  milking  cow  a  sup- 
ply of  green  forage  during  the  growing  season.  It  means  that 
crops  and  areas  must  be  so  arranged  that  one  green  crop  will 


FEEDING   DAIRY  CATTLE  219 

succeed  another  during  the  entire  season.  There  are  many 
advantages  of  soiling,  such  as  increased  food  production  from  a 
given  area,  providing  three  times  that  of  pasturage  ;  less  waste, 
-as  the  cattle  are  not  constantly  tramping  and  lying  on  the 
forage ;  greater  variety  of  food,  as  the  succession  of  crops 
provides  many  changes ;  increased  milk  and  butter  production 
when  prices  are  high,  as  in  the  fall;  less  discomfort  of  animals, 
as  they  are  fed  in  the  cool  stables;  and  less  fencing  required. 
One  great  objection  is  the  increased  labor;  such  as  preparing 
the  soil  for  the  crops,  seeding  every  few  days,  cutting  the  crop 
of  green  material  and  hauling  to  stables,  —  the  food  being 
green  and  heavy,  —  and  the  extra  labor  of  carrying  for  the 
cattle  in  the  stable. 

Soiling  crops  vary  widely  in  their  composition  and  as  a  suc- 
culent food  for  the  milking  cow.  As  a  rule,  they  contain  more 
waste  than  silage.  They  are  very  palatable,  readily  digestible, 
and  stimulate  the  flow  of  milk.  It  is  customary  to  feed  some- 
what larger  quantities  of  soiling  crops  than  of  silage,  60  pounds 
being  considered  a  fair  daily  allowance  for  a  1000-pound  cow. 
In  addition  she  must  have  her  grain  ration,  the  same  as  when 
silage  is  fed,  and  a  small  allowance  of  hay  of  good  quality, 
clover,  or  alfalfa  when  possible.  Instead  of  choosing  coarse 
grains,  such  as  bran,  distillers'  dried  grains,  and  the  like,  it  is 
preferable  to  feed  the  more  concentrated,  such  as  middlings, 
oil  meal,  corn  meal,  gluten  meal,  and  the  like. 

When  soiling  is  practiced,  the  area  required  to  the  cow  and 
the  rotation  of  crops  are  interesting  problems.  Both  vary  widely 
in  different  sections  of  the  country,  but  on  the  average  one  acre 
should  support  two  cows,  when  grain  and  some  hay  is  fed  in 
connection,  as  suggested.  While  the  crops  to  be  used  in  rota- 
tion vary  as  does  the  time  of  planting,  yet  the  following  examples 
will  serve  as  a  basis  to  be  varied  according  to  conditions  :  — 


220 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Examples  of  rotation  of  soiling  crops,  showing  kind  of  forage,  seed  to 
acre,  time  of  seeding,  ay-proximate  areas,  and  time  of  cutting  for  a  herd 
of  10  cows,  allowing  60  pounds  of  forage  a  cow  daily  or  600-  pounds 
a  day  in  all,  for  different  sections  of  the  country 

New  York  —  Wing's  Soiling  System  as  Basis 


5  Months  —  May  15  to  October  15  — 10  Cows  —  60  Pounds  per  Cow  Daily 


Kind  of  Crop 

Seed  per 
Acre 

Time  of 
Seeding 

Area 

Time  of  Cutting 

Rye 

2bu. 

Fall 

1  acre 

May  15-May  31 

Wheat1       .     .     . 

2bu. 

FaU 

\  acre 

June 1-June 10 

Red  clover  . 

20  1b. 

Spring 

\  acre 

June  11- June  20 

Mixed  ■ 

Clover 
Timothy 
Red  top 

• 

101b. 
101b. 
151b. 

Spring 

1  acre 

June  21- July  10 

>jr.      ,  [Oats 
Mlxedi  Vetch 

2bu. 
lbu. 

Spring 

\  acre 

Julyll-July20 

>/r.      ,  fOats 
MlxedlPeas    . 

•     • 

H  bu. 
Ubu.Can- 
ada  peas 

Spring 

J  acre 

July  21-July  31 

Corn,  early  flint   .     . 

10-20  lb. 

Spring 

%  acre 

Aug.  1-Aug.  15 

Corn,  medium  dent  . 

10-20  lb. 

Spring 

2  acre 

Aug.  16-Aug.  31 

Second  cutting,  clover 
and  grasses  .     .     . 

Sept.  1-Sept.  10 

Corn,    late,    "Mam- 
moth   Evergreen" 

10-20  lb. 

Late  spring 
Aug.  1-10 

I  acre 

Sept.  11-Sept.  30 

Mixed  f^arley     •     ' 
(Peas    .     .     . 

l|bu. 
Hbu. 

\  acre 

Oct.  1-Oct.  15 

1  Where  alfalfa  will  do  well  it  should  be  used  instead  of  wheat. 


FEEDING   DAIRY  CATTLE  221 

Illinois  —  Fraser's  Soiling  System  as  Basis 


5  Months — May 

15  to  October  15 

— 10  Cows  —  60  Pounds  per  Cow  Daily 

Kind  of  Crop 

Seed  per 
Acre 

Time  of 
Seeding 

Area 

Time  of  Cutting 

Rye 

2bu. 

Fall 

1  acre 

May  15-May  31 

Alfalfa    .     .     . 

201b. 

Spring 

\  acre 

June 1-June 10 

Red  Clover 

201b. 

Spring 

\  acre 

June  1 1-June  20 

Mixed 

Clover 
Timothy 
Red  top 

• 

101b. 
101b. 
151b. 

Spring 

1  acre 

June  20-July  1 

,  ,.     ,  f  Oats 
MlXediPeas     . 

•      • 

Hbu. 
Ibu. 

Spring 

£  acre 

July  1-July  10 

Corn,  early  (2d  cut- 
ting alfalfa) 

10-20  lb. 

Spring 

1  acre 

Julyll-July31 

Corn,    medium     (2d 
cutting  clover) 

10-20  lb. 

Spring 

1  acre 

Aug.  1-Aug.  31 

Corn,  late   .... 

10-20  lb. 

Spring 

1  acre 

Sept.  1-Sept.  30 

Rape 

101b. 

June 

\  acre 

Oct.  1-Oct.  15 

Wisconsin  —  Carlyle's  Soiling  System  as  Basis 


5  Months  —  May  15  to  October  15 — 10  Cows  —  60  Pounds  per  Cow  Daily 


Kind  of  Crop 

Seed  per 
Acre 

Time  of 
Seeding 

Area 

Time  of  Cutting 

Rye 

2bu. 

Fall 

\  acre 

May  15-May  31 

Alfalfa 

201b. 

Spring 

\  acre 

June 1-June 15 

Red  clover  .... 

201b. 

Spring 
Spring 

\  acre 

June  15-June  25 

f  Clover 
Mixed  \  Timothy  .     . 
1  Red  top   .     . 

101b. 
101b. 
151b. 

h  acre 

June  25- July  4 

222 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Wisconsin  —  Carlyle's  Soiling  System  as  Basis  —  Continued 


5  Months — May  15  to  October  15 — 10  Cows  —  60  Pounds  per  Cow  Daily 


Kind  of  Crop 

Seed  Per 
Acre 

Time  of 
Seeding 

Area 

Time  of  Cutting 

, ,.      ,  |  Oats    .     .     . 
MlXediPeas    .     .     . 

Ubu. 

Ibu. 

April 

i  acre 

July  4- July  31 

Corn,  early  (2d  cut- 
ting alfalfa) 

Corn,     medium     (2d 
cutting  clover) 

10-20  lb. 
10-20  lb. 

Spring 

Spring 
June 

1  acre 

1  acre 
\  acre 

Aug.  1— Aug.  31 
Sept.  1-Sept.  30 

Rape 

101b. 

Oct.  1-Oct.  15 

FEEDING    FOR    HIGH    PRODUCTION 

Those  who  are  raising  breeding  animals  are  often  interested 
in  high  records  of  production.  As  we  have  already  seen,  the 
major  dairy  breeders'  associations  —  Holsteins,  Jersey,  Guern- 
sey, and  Ayrshire  —  encourage  this  by  establishing  registers  in 
which  only  those  animals  that  make  certain  records  may  be 
recorded.  The  feeding  of  a  cow  in  order  that  she  may  make 
an  " advanced  registry  record,"  as  it  is  often  called,  is  a 
different  problem  from  that  of  feeding  a  cow  in  a  commercial 
dairy.  In  this  case,  all  is  sacrificed  for  a  high  record  of  pro- 
duction. The  high  record  serves  as  an  advertisement,  and  the 
breeder  is  enabled  to  sell  his  animals  at  a  much  higher  price 
than  otherwise. 

While  the  methods  of  feeding  as  well  as  the  food  used  by  the 
different  breeders  vary  widely  (in  fact  no  two  are  the  same), 
yet  the  general  procedure  is  somewhat  as  follows  :  have  the  cow 
very  fat  at  calving  time.  To  do  this  she  should  be  dried  off 
some  time  before  calving  and  receive  extra  care  and  feed.  It 
is  true  that  a  very  fat  cow  is  more  subject  at  calving  time  to 
difficulties,  such  as  milk  fever,  garget,  difficult  parturition,  and 


FEEDING   DAIRY  CATTLE  223 

the  like,  but  these  will  be  cared  for  by  a  painstaking  and  fa- 
miliar attendant.  The  argument  here  is  that  the  cow  will  use 
this  extra  body  fat  to  repair  the  waste  of  the  body,  thus  en- 
abling her  to  use  a  larger  part  of  her  food  in  the  elaboration  of 
milk,  some  going  so  far  as  to  say  that  a  part  of  the  extra  fat  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  milk.  While  just  what  processes 
take  place  in  the  animal's  body  are  not  known,  yet  it  is  true 
that  such  an  animal  will  produce  more  than  as  if  she  were  in 
average  condition. 

When  extreme  high  production  is  sought,  the  cow  is  fed  and 
milked  four  times  daily.  The  time  varies  somewhat,  but  the 
more  common  is  5  a.m.  and  11  a.m.;  5  p.m.  and  11  p.m.  The 
reason  for  choosing  these  hours  is  that  the  5  a.m.  and  5  p.m. 
feeding  and  milking  are  at  the  same  time  the  rest  of  the  herd 
is  being  fed  and  milked.  Everything  about  the  stable  should 
be  quiet,  and  the  milking  carefully  and  well  done  (see  page  260). 
The  feeds  composing  the  rations  vary  widely,  no  two  breeders 
using  the  same.  In  all  cases,  however,  the  secret  of  success  is 
variety.  Sometimes  the  grain  part  of  the  ration  is  composed 
of  a  half  dozen  or  more  different  kinds  of  grains ;  the  dry 
forage  of  two  or  more  kinds  of  hay  and  three  or  four  kinds  of 
succulent  foods.  The  amount  given  is  limited  only  by  the 
appetite  of  the  cow. 

FEEDING   THE    HEIFER 

As  the  time  of  calving  approaches,  the  feeding  of  the  heifer 
should  receive  careful  attention.  Do  not  feed  too  stimulating 
or  decayed  foods,  as  they  are  likely  to  cause  abortion.  Clean 
sweet  clover  or  mixed  hay  or  corn  stalks  and  corn  silage  or  roots 
with  a  small  allowance  of  grain,  such  as  ground  oats,  bran, 
shorts,  or  corn,  will  prove  very  efficient.  Just  previous  to  calv- 
ing it  is  best  to  discontinue  the  feeding  of  grain,  or  at  most 
only  a  couple  of  pounds  per  day,  and  not  increase  again  till  the 
heifer  freshens.     Immediately  after  calving,  a  warm  thin  gruel 


224 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


consisting  of  oatmeal  or  bran  should  be  given.     Feed  sparingly 

with  rather  loosening  foods  for  a  few  days  or  until  the  dangers 

of  milk  fever  are  over.     Then  increase  the  ration  gradually  until 

she  is  receiving  a  full  feed. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  heifer  is  doing  double  duty : 

in  addition  to  elaborating  milk,  she  is  growing  rapidly,  and  if 

bred,  she  must  supply  the  fetus; 

,_^-  ^'  "^    hence  the  importance    of    extra 

^^^£^H  QHB  Hz  ami  '    Ihl  ' 

vtiL*tisk         Bu^      Py"     care  anc^'  a^ove  an>  liberal  feed- 

/*f  ■■*       Bf^vB        -.^^^^    mS-     r^°  mee*  the  requirements 
/jJlf^imm £j  of  her  growing  body,  the  devel- 

JT  oping  fetus,  and  the  milk  a  good 

.    -J^mam^^*-  supply  of  protein  must  be  fur- 

nished. Protein  the  young 
Fig.  75.  —  Holstein-Friesian  Cow  growing  heifer  must  have  if  she 

"Betty      Lyons     Netherland."    is  to  develop  into  a  high-produc- 
Owned  by  H.  A.  Moyer,  Syracuse,    .  r^,  ,       •      _ 

ny.  inS  cow-     The  treatment  given 

the  heifer  will  largely  determine 
the  usefulness  of  the  future  cow.  Heavy  feeding  should  con- 
tinue throughout  the  entire  lactation  period,  which  should  be 
extended  as  long  as  possible,  for  the  developing  of  a  persistent 
milking  habit  is  favored  by  a  long  continuance  of  the  first 
lactation  period. 


SAMPLE    RATIONS    FOR   THE    DAIRY    COW 


The  following  rations  are  collected  from  various  sources,  and 
furnish  a  guide  in  determining  the  kind  and  amount  of  feed 
that  should  be  allowed  a  dairy  cow.  They  apply  to  a  1000- 
pound  dairy  cow  yielding  22  pounds  of  average  milk  :  - — 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


225 


Ration 

Ratio 

No. 

Grain 

Forage 

1 

3  lb.  corn  meal 

3  lb.  oats 

2  lb.  linseed  meal 

20  lb.  hay 

1:6.7 

2 

3  lb.  corn  meal 

3  lb.  wheat  bran 

2  lb.  cotton-seed  meal 

10  lb.  hay 

corn  stalks  ad  lib. 

1:7.6 

3 

3  lb.  oats 

3  lb.  wheat  bran 

2  lb.  gluten  feed 

50  lb.  roots 

corn  stalks  ad  lib. 

1:6.9 

4 

3  lb.  middlings 

3  lb.  dry  brewers'  grains 

2  lb.  linseed  meal 

40  lb.  corn  silage 
corn  stalks  ad  lib. 

1 :  7.3 

5 

2  lb.  oats 

4  lb.  wheat  bran 

2  lb.  gluten  meal 

40  lb.  corn  silage 
hay  ad  lib. 

1:6.8 

6 

3  lb.  oats 

2  lb.  wheat  bran 

1  lb.  linseed  meal 

1  lb.  cotton-seed  meal 

50  lb.  corn  silage 
hay  ad  lib. 

1:6.6 

7 

2  lb.  oats 

2  lb.  wheat  bran 

2  lb.  corn 

30  lb.  corn  silage 
clover  hay  ad  lib. 

1:7.4 

8 

2  lb.  oats 
2  lb.  corn 
2  lb.  cotton-seed  meal 

25  lb.  corn  silage 
5  lb.  clover  hay 
corn  stalks  ad  lib. 

1 :  6.6 

9 

4  lb.  wheat  bran 
2  lb.  corn  meal 

30  lb.  alfalfa  silage 
clover  hay  ad  lib. 

1 :  5.0 

10 

4  lb.  oats 

2  lb  corn  meal 

20  lb.  alfalfa  hay 

1:4.4 

11 

2  lb.  wheat  bran 

4  lb.  cotton-seed  meal 

20  lb.  hay 

10  lb.  cotton-seed  hulls 

1:8.2 

226 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Ration 

No. 

Grain 

Forage 

Ratio 

12 

4  lb.  wheat  bran 

2  lb.  cotton-seed  meal 

30  lb.  corn  silage 

cotton-seed  hulls  ad  lib. 

1:7.8 

13 

6  lb.  wheat  bran 

40  lb.  corn  silage 
cowpea  hay  ad  lib. 

1  :  5.9 

14 

3  lb.  wheat  bran 

3  lb.  cotton-seed  meal 

10  lb.  cowpea  hay 
sorghum  cane  ad  lib. 

1:5.1 

15 

3  lb.  cotton-seed  meal 

15  lb.  alfalfa  hay 

cotton-seed  hulls  ad  lib. 

1:4.7 

Grain  Mixture  for  Calf  Ration 

3  parts  corn  meal 
3  parts  ground  oats 
1  part  wheat  bran 
1  part  linseed  meal 


Age,  Mo. 

Grain  Mixture,  Lb. 

Summer 

Winter 

6 
12 

18 

2 
4 

6 

pasture 
pasture 
pasture 

clover  hay 
clover  hay 
clover  hay 

CHAPTER  X 

BREEDING   DAIRY   CATTLE 

The  breeding  of  dairy  cattle  offers  a  greater  field  of  opera- 
tion than  any  other  in  connection  with  the  propagation  of 
farm  animals.  Perhaps  in  no  other  class  is  variation  so  great 
or  improvement  so  easily  accomplished  as  in  the  improvement 
of  dairy  animals,  providing  proper  methods  are  used.  The  in- 
creasing population  is  making  increasing  demands  for  milk  and 
its  products,  —  butter  and  cheese  ;  —  and  while  the  supplying 
of  this  demand,  particularly  in  our  large  cities,  is  a  very  com- 
plex problem,  improvement  in  the  production  of  dairy  cattle 
cannot  be  said  to  be  a  difficult  task.  In  the  past  we  have  bred 
dairy  cattle  without  regard  to  their  record  of  production.  In 
fact  records  of  production  were  wanting,  as  none  such  were  kept. 
True,  we  have  kept  pedigrees  of  our  dairy  cattle  for  many 
generations,  but  these  pedigrees  tell  us  only :  the  color,  the 
date  of  birth,  the  owner  and  his  address,  the  sire  and  the  dam, 
none  of  which  supplies  us  with  information  as  to  the  merits 
of  the  cow.  What  is  equally  true,  we  have  estimated  pro- 
duction of  dairy  cattle  from  time  immemorable  by  saying  one 
cow  gives  so  many  quarts,  another  so  many  quarts  more,  and 
still  another  so  many  quarts  less ;  but  such  estimation  is  almost 
worthless  because  of  the  great  variation  in  the  yield  of  in- 
dividual cows  from  day  to  day.  Perhaps  two  days  a  week  a 
cow  will  yield  15  quarts,  the  other  five  days  only  10  quarts;  and 
in  our  estimation  we  are  likely  to  remember  the  15  quarts  and 

227 


228 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


forget  the  10  quarts.  Again,  for  many  years  we  have  kept 
a  more  or  less  accurate  record  of  the  show-yard  career  of  our 
leading  dairy  animals,  but  this  in  turn  gives  us  no  information 
as  to  their  producing  powers,  for  it  is  now  well  known  that  ani- 
mals with  brilliant  show-yard  careers  are  not  among  the  best 
producers. 


Fig.   76.  —  Ayrshire    Cow.     Grand    Champion    National   Dairy   Show,    1907. 
Photograph  from  National  Stockman  and  Farmer. 

The  Ayrshire  dairy  cattle  originated  in  the  county  of  Ayr,  Scotland,  where  they 
are  used  chiefly  in  cheese-making.  They  are  trim  and  neat  in  appearance. 
In  weight  the  cows  run  about  1000  pounds  rnd  the  bulls  1500  pounds.  The 
color  includes  red,  brown,  and  white. 


As  has  been  noted  in  the  chapter  on  general  breeding, 
variation  is  the  basis  of  improvement.  Without  variation 
there  can  be  no  improvement,  and  when  great  variation  exists 
much  improvement  is  possible.  Dairy  cows  vary  widely  both 
in  respect  to  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  their  milk.     To 


BREEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


229 


illustrate  the  variation  in  the  quantity,  we  may  compare 
average  production  of  all  cows  in  the  United  States  with  two 
of  the  high-producing  ones.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
this  is  not  a  comparison  of  the  poorest  and  the  best,  as  we 
have  no  record  of  the  poorest  cows  :  — 


Average  yearly  production  per  cow  in  the  United  States 


Year 

Milk 
Lb. 

Butter 
Lb. 

Year 

Milk 
Lb. 

Butter 
Lb. 

1850 .  .  . 

1436 

61 

1880  .  . 

2004 

85 

1860 .  .  . 

1505 

64 

1890  .  . 

2709 

115 

1870 .  .  . 

1772 

75 

1900  .  . 

3646 

155 

Production  in  one  month 


Name 

Milk 
Lb. 

Butter 
Lb. 

De  Kol  Queen  La  Polka  2d  .  .  . 
Colantha  4th' s  Johanna   .... 

3377 

2874 

145 
138 

From  the  table  we  note  that  the  monthly  record  of  our  high- 
producing  cows  is  approximately  equal  to  the  average  yearly 
record  of  all  cows  in  the  United  States.  Colantha  4th's  Johanna 
yielded  27,432  pounds  of  milk  in  one  year,  or  approximately 
eight  times  that  of  the  average  cow. 


MILK-RECORDS 


Record  of  performance  among  dairy  cattle  constitutes  the 
only  method  of  determining  their  value.  Without  such  records, 
we  would  not  be  able  to  choose  the  very  high-  or  the  very  low- 
producing,  or  the  profitable  from  the  unprofitable  animals.     At 


230  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

present,  many  dairy  herds  possess  cattle  producing  at  a  loss  — 
not  yielding  sufficient  milk  to  pay  for  the  food  consumed  — 
yet  in  the  absence  of  accurate  records  the  fact  goes  unobserved 
and  the  owner  does  not  know  the  profitable  from  the  unprofit- 
able animals.  No  person  is  able  to  go  into  a  herd  of  ten  cows 
and  pick  out  all  the  best  by  examination.  Records  are  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  determine  profit  and  loss. 

Method  of  keeping  records.  —  Records  are  more  easily  kept 
than  is  generally  supposed.  The  time  and  cost  of  keeping  a 
record  of  the  amount  of  milk  and  butter-fat  yielded  by  each 
cow  is  quite  insignificant,  especially  when  compared  with  the 
value  of  such  records.  The  materials  needed  are  a  pair  of  scales, 
a  hand  Babcock  tester  with  outfit,  and  a  blank  milk-sheet. 
The  scale  should  be  graduated  to  tenths  of  a  pound  instead  of 
ounces,  as  the  records  are  much  more  easily  added.  Chatillon's 
Improved  Circular  Spring  Balances  are  ordinarily  used. 
The  scales  should  be  hung  in  a  convenient  place  and  each 
cow's  milk  weighed  separately  and  set  down  on  a  Record- 
Sheet,  similar  to  table  on  p.  231. 

Once  each  month  the  milk  from  each  cow  should  be  tested 
for  the  percentage  of  butter-fat.  To  do  this,  one  should  take  a 
careful  sample  of  the  milk  for  two  successive  days.  The  sample 
need  not  be  large,  but  the  quantity  should  be  in  proportion 
to  the  flow.  One-half  pint  saved  from  the  two  days'  milk- 
ing is  sufficient.  This  should  be  placed  in  a  jar  and  covered 
to  prevent  evaporation.  In  warm  weather  it  is  necessary  to 
put  some  sort  of  preservative  into  the  milk,  otherwise  it  will 
sour,  and  in  that  case  cannot  be  tested.  For  each  cow  there 
should  be  a  jar  with  her  name  pasted  upon  it,  thus  avoiding  any 
possibility  of  getting  the  samples  mixed.  B}^  placing  the  per- 
centage of  fat  thus  obtained  on  the  record-sheet  beneath  the 
flow,  one  has  a  complete  record  of  each  animal  each  month.  By 
multiplying  the  total  milk  by  the  per  cent  of  fat,  one  gets  the 
total  amount  of  fat.     This  completes  the  record  for  the  month. 


BREEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE 


231 


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232  .  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  length  of  time  required  to  weigh  the  milk  and  take 
the  sample  will  depend  much  on  the  activity  of  the  one 
doing  the  work.  On  the  average  it  will  require  less  than  one- 
half  minute  a  day  for  each  cow  to  weigh  the  milk  and  set  the 
weight  down  on  the  record-sheet.  On  the  two  consecutive 
days  that  the  samples  are  taken,  it  will  require  the  same  time 
daily  to  the  cow  as  weighing  and  making  the  record.  Then  an 
hour  or  two  once  a  month  is  all  that  is  required  to  make  the 
Babcock  test  for  percentage  of  fat.  With  this  length  of  time, 
one  can  obtain  a  reasonably  accurate  record  of  the  performance 
of  every  cow  in  his  herd. 

Value  of  milk-records.  —  The  highest  degree  of  success 
cannot  be  attained  unless  we  know  the  production  of  each 
individual  cow.  In  addition,  such  records  serve  a  much  larger 
usefulness  because  they  enable  us  to  mate  the  animals  more 
judiciously.  Not  only  are  the  low-producers  unprofitable  in 
themselves,  but  in  the  absence  of  a  record  of  their  production, 
they  are  propagated,  and  their  offspring  in  turn  prove  un- 
profitable. 

TESTING   MILK    FOR   BUTTER-FAT 

The  materials  needed  in  testing  milk  for  butter-fat  are  a 
centrifugal  tester,  test-bottles,  a  17.6  c.c.  (cubic  centimeter) 
pipette  to  measure  the  milk,  a  17.5  c.c.  acid  measure,  and  sul- 
furic acid,  all  of  which  can  be  purchased  for  about  five  dollars 
from  any  dairy  supply  company  (Fig.  77).  They  may  be 
ordered  of  a  hardware  dealer.  Sulfuric  acid  is  sold  at  any 
drug  store. 

Sampling  the  milk.  —  The  milk  to  be  tested  should  be 
thoroughly  mixed  just  before  sampling.  To  do  this,  pour  back 
and  forth  between  two  vessels  several  times.  With  the  pipette, 
measure  out  17.6  c.c.  of  milk  and  place  in  the  test-bottle.  To 
do  this,  suck  the  milk  up  above  the  17.6  c.c.  mark.  Quickly 
place  the  index  finger  over  the  upper  end  of  the  pipette,  then 


BREEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  .  233 

by  releasing  the  pressure  allow  the  milk  to  run  down  to  the 
17.6  c.c.  mark.  Place  the  point  of  the  pipette  into  the  test- 
bottle  neck,  holding  both  pipette  and  bottle  at  an  angle,  then 
remove  the  finger  to  allow  the  milk  to  flow  into  the  bottle. 
To  be  sure  that  every  drop  is  out  of  the  pipette  blow  through 
it  into  the  test-bottle.  The  sampling  should  be  done  in  dupli- 
cate to  make  sure  of  the  results. 

Using  the  acid.  —  Much  care  should  be  exercised  not  to 
spill  the  sulfuric  acid  on  the  hands,  clothing,  or  floor.  Should 
any  be  accidentally  spilled,  pour  on  plenty  of  water,  then  add  a 
little  lime  or  baking  soda.  Always  keep  water  and  lime  at 
hand  for  this  purpose. 

After  all  the  samples  of  milk  to  be  tested  have  been  meas- 
ured, the  acid  should  be  added.  To  do  this,  fill  the  acid  meas- 
ure to  the  17.5  c.c.  mark  and  gradually  pour  into  the  test- 
bottle,  holding  the  bottle  in  a  slanting  position.  By  turning 
the  bottle  the  acid  will  carry  down  all  particles  of  milk  left  in 
the  long  neck.  Hold  the  bottle  by  the  neck  and  give  it  a  cir- 
cular motion  for  a  few  moments,  thus  mixing  the  milk  and  acid 
until  no  milk  or  clear  acid  is  visible.  The  contents  of  the 
bottle  should  be  dark  colored  and  hot.  Do  not  allow  the  bottle 
to  stand  too  long  before  mixing  or  the  test  will  not  be  clear. 

Whirling  the  bottles.  — ■  The  bottles  and  machine  should  be 
hot ;  and  if  not  a  steam  machine,  use  boiling  water  to  warm  up 
the  machine.  Place  the  bottles  in  the  machine  so  that  each 
will  have  another  directly  opposite  to  keep  the  machine  in 
balance.  Whirl  five  minutes.  Then  stop,  and  with  the  pipette 
or  cup  with  small  spout,  add  hot  water  to  each  bottle  until  the 
contents  come  up  to  the  bottom  of  the  neck.  Whirl  two 
minutes.  Add  hot  water  sufficient  to  bring  the  top  of  the  fat 
nearly  to  the  top  of  the  graduation  on  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 
Whirl  one  minute.  The  fat  should  form  a  clear  column  free 
from  black  or  white  patches  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 

Reading  the  percentage  of  fat.  —  Keep  the  fat  warm.     Hold 


234 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


BREEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  235 

the  bottle  by  the  upper  end  of  the  neck,  letting  it  hang  in  a 
perpendicular  position  on  a  level  with  the  eye.  Read  the  mark 
at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  column  of  fat.  The  difference 
between  these  is  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk.  For  example, 
if  the  top  reading  is  8.2  and  the  bottom  5.0,  then  the  milk  tests 
3.2  per  cent. 

Much  care  should  be  exercised  in  cleaning  the  test-bottles 
as  they  should  be  perfectly  free  from  dirt  when  used. 

TESTING   ASSOCIATIONS 

In  those  sections  of  the  country  in  which  dairying  is  extensively 
practiced,  the  forming  of  testing  associations  will  prove  very 
advantageous.  Cow-testing  associations  are  organizations  of 
farmers  having  for  their  object  the  determination  of  the  pro- 
duction of  the  individual  cow  in  the  herd.  While  the  methods 
of  procedure  of  these  associations  vary  widely  in  different 
localities,  yet  the  following  plan  gives  a  general  idea  and  may 
be  modified  to  suit  the  conditions. 

General  plan.  —  A  number  of  dairymen,  twenty  to  twenty- 
five,  having  a  total  of  300  to  600  cows,  effect  an  organiza- 
tion, elect  officers,  adopt  a  constitution  and  by-laws,  and 
give  the  officers  power  to  employ  a  man  to  do  the  testing. 
This  tester  visits  each  of  the  herds  once  a  month,  weighs  the 
milk  of  each  cow  for  a  period  of  twenty-four  hours,  takes 
samples  of  the  same  and  tests  for  percentage  of  fat.  In  some 
cases  the  tester  weighs  the  feed  of  each  cow  and  figures  the 
cost  of  the  ration.  The  tester  makes  a  complete  record  of  the 
amount  of  milk,  the  percentage  of  fat  and  total  fat,  and  the  food 
consumed,  for  each  cow  in  the  herd,  leaves  a  copy  of  this  record 
with  the  dairyman,  and  proceeds  to  the  next  herd,  to  return 
again  in  about  one  month.  In  addition  he  gives  all  the  helpful 
suggestions  possible,  such  as  the  successful  practices  of  the 
other  members   of  the   association.     The   entire   cost  to  the 


236  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

dairyman  is  approximately  one  dollar  per  cow  in  addition  to 
boarding  and  providing  passage  for  the  tester. 

RECORDS  OF  PERFORMANCE  AND  OF  BREEDING 

In  order  to  mate  dairy  cattle  judiciously,  it  is  absolutely 
essential  that  we  know  not  only  something  of  the  performance 
of  the  animals  thus  mated,  but  the  records  of  production  of 
their  ancestors  as  well.  Such  records  enable  us  to  mate  the  best 
with  the  best,  and  in  so  doing  improve  the  strain  with  which  we 
are  working. 

In  all  breeding  operations,  it  must  be  remembered  that  like 
produces  like,  with  the  trend  of  the  race  downward.  That  is  to 
say,  the  offspring  will  resemble  the  parents  in  general,  though  on 
the  average  they  will  be  slightly  inferior.  While  on  the  average 
the  offspring  are  inferior  to  their  parents  and  while  in  general 
they  resemble  their  parents,  3ret  individual  offspring  will  vary 
widely,  some  far  superior  to  their  parentage,  while  others  will  be 
equally  as  inferior.  This  is  where  the  successful  breeder  is 
able  to  mold  the  destiny  of  his  herd  by  selection.  Possessing 
a  record  of  the  production  of  each  individual,  inferior  and  superior 
alike,  he  mates  the  superior  to  the  superior  and  discards  the  in- 
ferior. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  call  attention  to  a  rather 
widespread  but  incorrect  idea.  We  have  certain  breeds  of 
dairy  cattle  that  are  recognized  as  heavy  milkers  but  rather 
low  testers,  and  we  also  have  high  testing  breeds  but  rather  light 
milkers.  Many  a  breeder  of  dairy  cattle  has  fallen  into  the 
grievous  error  of  thinking  that  if  he  mates  a  heavy  milker  with 
a  high  tester,  the  offspring  should  give  a  fairly  heavy  flow  of 
milk  with  a  liberally  high  test.  Such  breeders  have  forgotten 
that  the  drag  of  the  race  is  downward,  and  that  by  crossing  a 
heavy  milker  but  low  tester  on  a  high  tester  but  light  milker, 
that  on  the  average  the  offspring  will  be  both  a  light  milker 
and  a  low  tester. 


BREEDING   DAIRY  CATTLE  237 

The  individual  animal  the  unit  of  improvement.  —  In  the 
improvement  of  dairy  cattle  by  breeding,  the  individual  must 
be  considered  as  the  unit.  This  applies  to  sire  and  dam 
alike.  The  longer  the  line  of  high-producing  ancestry,  the  more 
certain  are  we  that  the  offspring  in  turn  will  be  a  high  producer. 
The  importance  of  this  individual  record  of  performance  backed 
by  ancestors  with  similar  records  cannot  be  overestimated. 
Having  satisfied  one's  self  as  to  the  individual  excellency  of 
both  sire  and  dam,  he  must  even  then  be  prepared  to  accept 
some  low-producers,  for  such  is  the  law  of  chance,  which  accom- 
panies all  breeding  operations.  One  may,  however,  rest  as- 
sured that  on  the  average  the  offspring  of  individuals  thus  care- 
fully selected  will  be  equal  to  their  parents,  and  that  he  will  be 
rewarded  by  obtaining  a  few  that  will  exceed  the  records  of 
their  parents. 

PLAN    OF    BREEDING 

If  one  is  to  succeed  in  breeding  dairy  cattle,  he  must  proceed 
according  to  some  well-adapted  plan.  Before  deciding  on 
a  plan,  one  should  familiarize  himself  with  the  details  of  the 
business.  This  can  best  be  done  by  visiting  and  making  a  study 
of  dairy  farms  both  successful  and  unsuccessful.  Compare  all 
farms  thus  observed,  note  the  difference,  the  causes  that  led 
to  success  on  one,  and  to  failure  on  the  other.  No  sugges- 
tions can  be  given  as  to  a  working  plan,  as  all  will  depend 
on  the  local  conditions.  The  intending  breeder  should  take 
into  account  his  likes  and  dislikes.  Some  may  prefer  the  heavy 
milking  breeds,  others  the  high  butter-fat-producing  breeds. 
It  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind,  whatever  the  class  or  breed 
chosen,  that  none  but  superior  cattle  are  to  be  considered  if 
highest  success  is  to  be  attained. 

Raise  the  heifer  calves  from  the  best  cows.  —  Many  dairymen 
are  not  raising  their  heifer  calves.  They  are  sold  for  veal, 
whether  from  high-  or  low-producing  cows.     Near  large  cities 


238  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  dairies  are  so  crowded  for  room  that  there  is  often  not 
space  enough  to  raise  these  calves ;  yet  when  possible  provision 
should  be  made  for  perpetuating  the  high-producing  cows. 
The  practice  of  buying  all  the  cows  has  a  tendency  to  lower 
rather  than  raise  the  average  production  of  the  herd,  for  the 
reason  that  few  of  the  high-producing  cows  are  for  sale,  and  the 
dairyman  is  obliged  to  take  rather  inferior  producers  to  supply 
his  customers  with  milk. 

Cooperative  breeding.  —  A  very  successful  method  of  improv- 
ing the  dair}r  cattle  of  a  community  is  to  breed  them  on  the 
cooperative  plan.  In  the  localities  where  cow-testing  associa- 
tions exist,  this  is  a  very  easy  matter.  It  is  also  apparent  that 
the  formation  of  cow-breeding  associations,  in  connection  with 
cow-testing  associations,  would  do  much  to  advance  the  prog- 
ress of  the  dairy  industry.  Each  association  should  have  for 
its  object  the  production  and  improvement  of  high-grade  and 
pure-bred  dairy  cattle,  and  should  be  formed  of  breeders  who 
possess  the  same  class  or  breed  of  cattle.  It  would  be  the  work 
of  such  an  association  to  protect  the  interests  of  its  members, 
provide  suitable  bulls  each  year  for  use  on  the  cows  owned  by 
the  members,  advertise  stock,  attract  buyers,  hold  meetings  for 
discussion  of  cow-breeding  matters,  and  educate  the  farmers  of 
the  locality  to  better  methods  of  breeding,  feeding,  and  develop- 
ing high-producing  dairy  cows. 

FORMATION    OF   THE    DAIRY    HERD 


Perhaps  one  of  the  most-discussed  questions  in  the  formation 
of  a  dairy  herd  is  whether  to  begin  with  pure-bred  or  grade 
cows.  By  purely  bred  animals  are  meant  those  that  are  re- 
corded in  the  herd  books  of  their  respective  breeds ;  by  grade 
is  meant  the  produce  of  a  pure-bred  sire  upon  a  native  or  com- 
mon dam.  Opinions  differ  widely  as  to  which  is  the  more 
profitable.  Pure-bred  animals  are  much  sought  for  breeding 
purposes ;  their  offspring  are  therefore  more  valuable  and  com- 


BREEDING   DAIRY  CATTLE  239 

mand  a  higher  price  than  do  the  offspring  of  grades.  There- 
fore, if  the  value  of  the  calves  is  taken  into  consideration,  a 
pure-bred  herd  is  a  more  profitable  one,  other  things  being 
equal,  than  a  grade  herd.  On- the  other  hand,  by  the  grading- 
up  process,  that  is,  by  continually  selecting  and  breeding  the 
cows  that  are  the  best  producers  to  a  pure-bred  bull,  it  is 
entirely  possible  and  by  no  means  difficult  to  establish  a  herd 
of  grade  cows  that  will  equal  in  the  production  of  milk  any 
herd  of  pure-bred  animals.  If,  therefore,  milk-production  alone 
is  sought,  a  grade  herd  may  produce  as  largely  as  a  pure- 
bred ;  but  if  the  offspring  is  taken  into  consideration,  a  purely 
bred  herd  certainly  has  an  advantage  over  a  grade  herd  of 
equal  productive  capacity. 

The  enterprising  and  progressive  owner  will  hardly  be  con- 
tent with  grades  only.  In  the  beginning,  his  bull  will  be  pure- 
bred ;  presently  he  will  want  a  pure-bred  cow  to  match,  then 
one  or  two  more.  Thus  he  will  be  steadily  and  properly  work- 
ing towards  a  pure-bred  herd  and  gaining  in  knowledge  and 
experience  at  the  same  time.  This  will  be  found  a  much 
better  plan,  especially  with  the  beginner  or  those  unaccustomed 
to  handling  registered  stock,  than  to  purchase  a  pure-bred 
herd  in  the  beginning. 


GRADING-UP   THE    HERD 

We— remarked  just  above-that  by  the  grading-up  process  it 
is  entirely  possible  and  by  no  means  difficult  to  establish  a 
herd  of  grade  cows  that  will  equal  in  the  production  of  milk 
any  herd  of  pure-bred  animals.  This  may  seem  a  bold  state- 
ment, but  it  is  the  one  that  it  is  desired  to  impress  on  the 
average  dairymen.  While  the  methods  of  accomplishing  this 
vary  greatly,  careful  selection  and  judicious  mating  furnish 
the  key  to  the  situation.  There  are  no  secrets  in  herd  im- 
provement. In  this  discussion  it  is  proposed  briefly  to  indicate 
the  lines  along  which  an  attempt  to  breed  up  and  improve  a 


240  MANUAL    OF  FABM  ANIMALS 

herd  of  common  cattle  is  most  likely  to  prove  successful.  For 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  large  majority  of  dairymen 
seeking  to  improve  their  herds  must  depend  largely  on  the 
individual  animals  they  have  ..already  on  hand,  as  the  basis  from 
which  to  start  the  improvement. 

The  first  essential  is  a  record  of  the  performance  of  each 
cow  comprising  the  herd.  In  herd  improvement  it  is  funda- 
mental, and  without  it  advancement  cannot  be  made.  No 
one,  not  even  the  experienced  dairymen,  can  afford  to  do  this 
upon  guesswork  alone. 

The  second  essential  is  the  selection  of  a  suitable  bull.  Three 
factors  in  order  of  their  importance  are:  his  pedigree  based 
upon  a  record  of  performance,  his  individuality,  and  his  ability 
to  get  uniform  offspring.  Greatest  improvement  is  not  possible 
with  any  one  of  these  factors  wanting. 

The  first  generation. —  If  the  sire  has  been  well  chosen,  the 
calves  in  the  first  generation  are  likely  to  be  an  even  and  uni- 
form crop,  even  though  their  dams  be  of  mixed  breeding.  If 
the  sire  be  a  pure-bred,  the  first  crop  of  calves  will  be  half-bloods. 
If  convenient,  all  of  the  heifer  calves  should  be  retained.  A 
great  advantage  in  the  rapid  improvement  of  a  herd  of  cows 
under  this  grading-up  process  is  the  ability  to  raise  a  large  num- 
ber of  individuals  up  to  the  time  that  they  begin  to  produce,  so 
that  a  greater  number  may  be  available  from  which  to  select. 
If  often  happens,  however,  that  the  circumstances  of  the  owner 
do  not  admit  of  rearing  a  large  number,  and  some  selection 
must  be  made  at  the  time  of  birth. 

Select  heifer  calves  from  high-producing  dams.  —  If  some 
calves  must  be  discarded,  owing  to  lack  of  facilities  for  rearing 
them,  let  it  be  those  from  the  low-producing  dams.  Retain  the 
heifers  from  the  high-producing  cows.  This  is  in  keeping  with 
our  law  that  "like  produces  like."  Seme-have  recommended 
retaining  the  heifer  calves  from  those  cows  that  show  variation, 
particularly  toward  improvement,   basing  their  argument  on 


BREEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  241 

the  fact  that  such  an  animal  is  not  likely  to  be  prepotent,  and 
that  such  being  the  case,  the  calves  more  nearly  resemble  the 
sire.  There  may  be  two  objections  to  this.  In  the  first  place, 
animals  that  show  much  variation  are  as  likely  to  vary  toward 
the  bad  as  toward  the  good ;  and  in  the  second  place,  if  the  dam 
has  at  some  time  made  a  low  record,  as  she  probably  has  if  she 
shows  much  improvement,  it  means  that  we  are  oftentimes 
selecting  our  heifer  calf  from  a  low-producing  dam.  Such  a 
course  is  as  likely  to  lead  to  failure  as  to  success.  There  are 
many  experiments  and  an  abundance  of  experience  going  to 
show  that  greatest  success  is  attained  by  retaining  the  heifers 
from  the  high-producing  dams  and  discarding  those  from  the 
low-producers. 

The  second  generation.  —  There  are  many  perplexing  questions 
arising  in  the  second  generation  of  this  grading-up  process.  In 
the  first  place,  there  is  the  question  of  the  sire.  If  the  original 
sire  was  young  at  the  time  of  his  purchase,  there  will  be  a 
number  of  his  half-blood  offspring  ready  to  breed  while  he  is 
still  in  the  height  of  his  power.  If  the  bull  has  proved  a  good 
one,  the  owner %does  not  wish  to  sell  him,  and  he  does  not  feel 
able  to  buy  another  to  breed  the  heifers.  The  owner  is  at  a  loss 
to  know  what  to  do,  as-he  has  heard  much  against  the  practice 
olio-breeding.  In  a  majority  of  such  cases,  if  the  sire  is  vigor- 
ous, he  is  the  very  best  bull  to  breed  to  a  lot  of  high  quality, 
uniform,  and  half-blood  heifers,  if  it  is  desired  to  receive  greater 
uniformity  as  well  as  greater  average  production,  even  though 
he  be  their  own  sire.  On  the  other  hand,  suppose  the  owner 
wishes  to  change  bulls  and  procures  an  animal  equal  in  produc- 
tive capacity,  but  of  slightly  different  type  from  the  original  sire. 
In  all  probability  these  second-generation  calves,  even  though 
they  are  three-fourth  blood,  will  not  be  nearly  so  uniform  a  crop 
as  the  first-generation  or  half-blood  calves.  Experience  has 
shown  that  the  second  generation  is  not  nearly  so  uniform  as 
the  first,  and  frequently  shows  little  if  any  increase  in  average 


242  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

production,  although  a  few  individuals  may  show  marked 
improvement.  This  will  prove  the  skill  and  patience  of  the 
breeder. 

Continued  judicious  selection  the  means  of  improvement.  — 
The  few  individuals  of  the  second  generation  that  show  the 
marked  improvement  are  the  ones  to  be  relied  on  to  carry 
the  herd  forward  in  the  improvement.  Their  female  offspring 
will  in  turn  show  many  inferior  to  themselves,  with  only  a  few 
superior  ones.  It  is  the  continued  and  judicious  selection  from 
the  high-producing  and  the  discarding  of  the  low-producing 
that  improves  the  general  average  of  the  herd.  As  generations 
come  and  go,  characteristics  of  the  pure-bred  sire  will  become 
more  and  more  fixed  and  uniform.  Reversions  towards  the 
low  production  of  the  common-bred  ancestors  will  be  less  and 
less  frequent.  The  herd  will  be  practically  pure-bred  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  capacity  of  the  individual  animals  to  re- 
produce their  characteristics,  although  they  can  never  become 
eligible  to  registration  in  a  herd-book. 

This  plan  of  grading-up  has  been  successfully  practiced  in  the 
improvement  of  a  large  number  of  herds  of  dairy  cattle,  and  is 
entirely  within  the  reach  of  any  one.  As  an  example  of  this 
plan  there  is  shown  in  the  table  (p.  243)  the  improvement  that 
was  secured  in  the  case  of  a  herd  descending  from  a  single  in- 
ferior cow. 

The  table  shows  a  very  rapid  improvement  for  the  first  two 
generations,  and  for  the  next  three  it  just  about  holds  its  own. 
There  are  two  reasons  why  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  genera- 
tions do  not  equal  the  second:  first,  because  they  contain  many 
heifers  which  have  not  yet  reached  maturity  and  serve  to  pull 
the  general  average  down;  and  second,  there  are  a  large  number 
of  animals  taken  into  account. 

While  the  plan  has  been  applied  to  the  improvement  of  a  herd 
starting  with  a  common  cow,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
same  principles  apply  equally  well  to  any  herd.     There  are  very 


BREEDING   DAIRY  CATTLE  243 

Table  showing  improvement  in  descendants  of  an  inferior  cow  by  pure-bred 
bulls.  The  number  underneath  each  animal  indicates  her  average  yearly 
record  in  pounds  of  fat;  the  years  show  the  number  of  years  in  milk 


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244  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

few  herds,  even  the  best,  in  which  the  intelligent  application  of 
these  principles  will  not  result  in  marked  improvement. 

THE    DAIRY    BULL 

The  bull  is  of  prime  importance  in  breeding  dairy  cattle.  We 
have  already  observed  that  the  male  is  concerned  with  so  many 
more  individual  offspring  that  his  influence  is  much  more  ex- 
tensive because  of  the  increased  number  he  influences.  To 
secure  the  improvement  in  a  herd  of  cattle  through  the  females 
would  require  the  use  of  twenty-five  or  more  superior  cows  to 
accomplish  the  same  results  that  might  be  secured  by  the  use 
of  a  single  bull,  and  even  then  there  would  be  less  uniformity 
in  the  offspring.  This  is  due  merely  to  the  fact  that  the  bull 
controls  one-half  the  characters  in  the  entire  crop  and  not  to  any 
special  prepotency  on  his  part. 

Choosing  a  dairy  bull.  —  In  choosing  dairy  bulls,  it  may  be 
noted  that  they  have  many  points  in  common  with  the  dairy 
cow,  particularly  features  of  type,  such  as  were  fully  discussed 
in  the  chapter  on  choosing  a  dairy  cow,  page  189  ;  but  it  is  a 
much  more  difficult  task  to  choose  a  bull  than  it  is  to  discrimi- 
nate between  cows. 

The  first  and  most  important  attribute  is  good  pedigree, 
based  on  a  record  of  performance.  Not  only  should  the  dams 
in  the  pedigree  have  good  records  of  performance,  but  the 
males  should  also  be  getters  of  performers.  The  longer  the 
line  of  high-producing  ancestry,  the  more  certain  are  the  off- 
spring to  be  high  producers. 

After  having  satisfied  ourselves  with  respect  to  the  pedigree, 
as  based  on  records  of  performance,  then  we  may  take  into 
account  the  individuality  of  the  bull.  In  no  case  should  one 
sacrifice  individuality,  no  matter  how  perfect,  for  performance. 
It  would  be  unpardonable  to  choose  a  bull,  if  he  was  so  weak 
as  to  be  unable  to  propagate  his  kind.  The  constitutional 
vigor  and  prepotency  are  indicated  to  a  certain  extent  by  the 


BREEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


245 


individual.  The  bull  should  possess  a  masculine  appearance. 
The  features  of  the  head  should  be  strong,  with  the  eyes  mild 
and  clear.  The  chest  should  be  deep,  the  heart  girth  large, 
the  hide  loose  and  pliable,  and  the  hair  fine  and  silky,  as  these 
are  associated  with  constitution,  vigor,  and  thrift. 


Fig.  78.  —  Jersey  Bull  "Hood  Farm  Torono."     Sire  of  ten  daughters  in  the 
Register  of  Merit.     Owned  by  Hood  Farm,  Lowell,  Mass. 

The  Jersey  breed  of  dairy  cattle,  a  native  of  the  Island  of  Jersey,  one  of  the 
Channel  Islands,  near  England,  is  unexcelled  in  the  quality  and  richness  of  the 
milk.  By  many  it  is  considered  the  "butter  cow."  In  size  the  animals  are 
small,  weighing  700  and  upward.  The  color  is  fawn,  being  of  many  shades, 
yellowish,  reddish,  grayish,  brownish,  and  silver  fawn.  This  breed  is  popular 
in  the  United  States. 


Uniformity  of  get.  —  The  importance  of  uniformity  among 
the  calves  sired  by  a  bull  is  of  much  importance.  At  the  present 
time,  lack  of  uniformity  among  our  dairy  cattle  is  one  of  the  most 
noticeable  defects.     This   is  due  in   a    large  measure  to  our 


246  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

utter  lack  of  system  in  breeding.  When  once  we  have  decided 
on  the  breed,  there  should  be  no  further  change.  Were  this 
done  for  a  few  generations,  until  certain  breeds  became  identi- 
fied with  certain  localities,  then  we  could  depend  on  uniformity 
of  the  entire  crop  of  calves  sired  in  any  given  season. 

Number  of  cows  to  the  bull.  —  The  number  of  cows  that  it  is 
safe  to  breed  to  a  bull  in  a  season  depends  much  on  the  breed. 
The  bulls  of  the  heavy  phlegmatic  beef  breeds  are  not  so  prolific 
as  the  lighter  more  active  dairy  breeds.  The  same  is  true  among 
the  various  dairy  breeds,  but  to  a  less  marked  extent.  It  is 
entirely  safe  to  count  on  a  bull  serving  twenty-five  cows,  and 
when  the  bulls  are  exceedingly  strong  and  vigorous,  they  may 
far  exceed  this  number. 

THE    DAIRY   COW 

While  all  dairy  cows  must  be  bred  in  order  that  they  may 
freshen,  the  cows  to  which  we  look  to  replenish  the  herd  should 
be  carefully  selected.  The  first  and  by  far  the  most  important 
factor  to  take  into  consideration  is  pedigree  based  upon  the 
record  of  performance.  After  having  satisfied  ourselves  as  to 
the  performance,  then  we  may  look  to  the  individuality,  as 
suggested  in  the  chapter  on  choosing  a  cow   (p.   189). 

Productive  period  in  dairy  cattle.  —  The  most  fertile  period  in 
the  cow's  life  is  usually  from  two  to  eight  years  of  age.  In  ex- 
ceptional cases  this  period  may  be  extended  both  ways.  Just 
how  young  it  is  best  to  breed  heifers  is  a  question  concerning 
which  there  is  great  difference  of  opinion.  Some  argue  that 
secreting  milk  is  a  kind  of  habit,  and  the  sooner  the  young  ani- 
mal becomes  accustomed  to  it  the  better  it  is  for  her  ;  whereas 
others  say  that  the  cow  should  not  be  bred  until  she  gets  her 
growth,  contending  that  the  demands  made  on  the  young 
animal  by  the  growing  fetus  and  her  own  growth  are  too  severe, 
and  that  she  is  likely  to  be  stunted. 

The  advisability  of  breeding  a  heifer  so  as  to  have  her  drop 


BREEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  247 

the  calf  at  two  years  of  age  depends  much  on  the  individual. 
If  she  is  vigorous,  healthy,  and  well  grown,  it  will  probably  be 
better  to  breed  her  rather  young,  and  encourage  the  milking 
habit  from  the  beginning.  Once  giving  milk,  keep  her  at  it  as 
long  as  possible,  for  the  cow  that  dries  off  after  secreting  milk  a 
few  months  is  unprofitable  at  best.  Do  not  breed  her  a  second 
time  till  rather  late,  as  the  effect  of  the  animal  again  becoming 
pregnant  is  to  decrease  the  flow  of  milk.  This  practice  has  much 
to  recommend  it.  In  the  first  place,  unbred  heifers  are  in  heat 
two  or  three  days  every  three  weeks,  and  these  constant  recur- 
ring periods  are  as  much  of  a  check  on  the  growth  of  the  heifer 
as  that  of  the  growth  of  the  fetus.  Again,  if  the  cow  is  let  run 
in  this  unbred  state,  the  reproductive  organs  are  likely  to  be- 
come deranged  and  the  animal  barren.  The  animal  bred  young 
in  life  will  prove  a  more  regular  breeder.  The  condition  of 
pregnancy  seems  to  have  a  marked  stimulating  effect  on  the 
system  of  the  heifer.  The  assimilation  is  much  better,  and  if 
provided  with  an  abundance  of  nutritious  food,  she  will  make 
a  greater  growth  during  pregnancy  than  otherwise.  It  is  easier 
to  develop  the  milk-secreting  organs  at  this  early  period. 
Therefore,  if  the  heifer  is  thrifty  and  well  grown,  it  would  seem 
best  from  a  practical  point  of  view  to  breed  her  young. 

At  about  eight  or  ten  years  of  age,  the  productive  powers 
of  most  dairy  cows  begin  to  wane,  although  many  of  them  are 
reliable  breeders  well  into  the  teens.  Above  twelve  years  of 
age,  however,  it  is  rarely  that  they  will  breed,  and  when  an 
animal  of  this  age  persistently  fails  to  conceive,  it  is  perhaps 
best  to  dispose  of  her  as  the  chances  of  her  propagating  are 
exceedingly  remote. 

Season  of  the  year  to  breed.  —  The  natural  time  for  calves  to 
arrive  is  in  the  spring.  Under  ordinary  farm  conditions  this 
is  the  customary  time  for  having  the  cows  drop  their  calves. 
There  are  many  advantages  in  having  the  calves  come  at  this 
time.     The  pregnant  cow  can  be  turned  to  grass,  which  is  the 


248  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

natural  food  for  pregnant  animals,  and  need  not  receive  so  close 
attention  as  would  be  necessary  were  she  confined  to  the  stable 
and  fed  dry  foods.  The  warm  weather  approaching,  the  calf 
is  more  easily  cared  for  than  in  the  winter.  There  is  natural 
grass  for  the  calf  to  feed  on,  and  nothing  is  better. 

Fall  calving  is  much  to  be  preferred  on  dairy  farms  or  where 
high  production  is  desired.  There  are  many  reasons  for  this. 
By  having  the  calves  dropped  in  the  fall  the  cows  are  giving 
their  maximum  yield  when  the  price  of  dairy  products  is  high. 
While  the  calf  is  more  trouble  to  care  for  in  winter,  this  is  the 
idle  season,  and  more  attention  can  be  given  it.  Again,  on  the 
average  the  flow  can  be  kept  up  longer,  and  the  total  produc- 
tion made  much  more  when  the  cow  freshens  in  the  fall.  This 
is  due,  in  part,  to  the  fact  that  she  is  turned  to  pasture  just  as 
her  flow  begins  to  wane,  which  causes  it  to  rise  again.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  cow  freshens  in  the  spring,  the  animals  give 
their  maximum  yield  when  the  price  of  dairy  products  is  low, 
and  then  the  dry  fall  coming  on  cuts  their  flow,  then  later  they 
are  put  on  the  dry  food  of  winter,  which  still  further  reduces  the 
yield,  so  that  at  the  time  dairy  products  are  high,  the  animals 
are  giving  very  little  or  no  milk  at  all. 

A  cow  bred  Jan.  1  should  calve  Oct.  10,  or  one  bred  June  23 
should  calve  April  1,  according  to  the  table  on  next  page. 

Parturition  time. — The  average  period  of  gestation  in  the  cow 
is  properly  placed  at  nine  months,  more  accurately  perhaps  two 
hundred  and  eighty-three  days,  but  it  may  vary  either  way. 
A  calf  born  at  the  two  hundred  and  fortieth  day  may  live,  and 
a  case  is  reported  where  a  thrifty  calf  was  dropped  on  the  three 
hundred  and  thirty-fifth  day.  Because  of  the  uncertainty  of  the 
period,  the  cow  should  be  closely  watched  from  the  eighth  month 
until  calving.  There  are  certain  signs  of  the  near  approach  of 
parturition  that  rarely  fail.  The  udder  becomes  enlarged,  firm 
and  resistant  to  the  touch,  with  more  or  less  swelling  in  front,  and 
secretes  a  milky  fluid ;  the  vulva  becomes  enlarged  and  swollen, 


BREEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


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250  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  discharges  a  stringy  mucus ;    the  belly  droops  and  the 
muscles  on  each  side  of  the  root  of  the  tail  "fall  in,"  leaving 

deep  hollows.  Later  the  cow 
becomes  uneasy,  ceases  eating, 
lies  down  and  rises  again, 
switches  her  tail,  and  may  bel- 
low or  moan.  Soon  the  labor 
pains  come  on,  the  animal 
arches  her  back,  lowers  her 
croup,  draws  the  belly  up,  and 
straining  is  more  or  less  violent 
Fig.  79.  —  Jersey   Cow  "Jacoba  and  continuous.     Soon  the  clear 

Irene."     She  gave  17,253  pounds  water.bags      protrude       between 
milk   containing  9o3    pounds   fat.  °         ^ 

The  world's  record  for  the  breed,  the     lips    of     the    vulva,     though 

Owned  by  A.  O.  Auten,  Jerseyville,  blood    may  precede    them>      Tlie 

water-bags  come  rapidly,  hang- 
ing downward  toward  the  hocks,  pull  at  the  fetus,  and  aid  in 
dilating  the  womb.  In  this  manner  these  bags  aid  materially 
and  should  not  be  ruptured  until  they  do  so  naturally.  The 
after-pains  come  on  later  and  expel  the  afterbirth  which 
should  not  be  left  longer  than  twenty-four  hours. 

For  difficult  parturition  and  removal  of  afterbirth,  see  page 
334.  Directly  after  calving,  give  a  warm  gruel  of  oatmeal, 
wheat  bran,  or  shorts.  Increase  the  grain  ration  gradually 
until  on  full  feed. 

THE    CALF 

The  young  calf  that  makes  its  appearance  normally  and  is 
bright  and  active  needs  only  to  be  let  alone  as  long  as  both  cow 
and  calf  are  doing  well.  Not  all  calves,  however,  are  so  fortu- 
nate. Occasionally  one  loses  its  life  through  want  of  atten- 
tion at  time  of  birth.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  new-born 
calf  cannot  breathe  —  does  not  establish  the  function  of  respi- 
ration.    Steps  must  be  taken  quickly  to  establish  respiration. 


BBEEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE  251 

If  detached  membranes  cover  the  air  passage,  remove  them. 
Wiping  out  the  nose  deeply  with  a  feather,  or  even  with  the 
finger,  excites  sneezing  and  starts  breathing.  Blowing  violently 
into  the  nose  and  mouth  has  a  similar  effect.  Slapping  the 
chest  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  or  with  a  towel  dipped  in  cold 
water  is  good  to  start  breathing. 

As  soon  as  the  cow  has  recovered  from  the  shock  of  giving 
birth,  she  should  tend  the  calf,  for  it  will  be  physically  bene- 
fited thereby.  If  she  refuses  to  lick  and  caress  her  calf,  a  little 
flour  sprinkled  over  the  back  of  the  latter  will  often  attract  her 
to  it.  Should  she  still  refuse,  the  calf  must  be  dried  with  a  cloth 
or  wisp  of  straw,  and  if  necessary,  assisted  to  get  its  first  meal. 

It  is  especially  important  for  the  calf  that  it  get  the  first  or 
colostrum  milk  of  the  dam.  This  milk  is  rich  in  mineral  matter 
and  ash,  is  a  powerful  laxative,  and  is  effective  in  removing  the 
fecal  matter  from  the  alimentary  canal,  and  in  addition  serves 
as  a  tonic.  The  calf  should  be  allowed  to  suck  the  dam  a  few 
times  ;  some  recommend  until  the  milk  is  fit  for  human  con- 
sumption, usually  about  the  eighth  or  ninth  milking,  while  others 
recommend  separating  them  on  the  second  day,  providing  the 
calf  is  strong  and  the  cow's  udder  in  good  shape,  as  the  cow  is 
more  easily  reconciled  to  the  separation,  and  the  calf  can  be 
taught  to  drink  more  easily  than  if  it  has  sucked  the  cow  for 
some  time.  If,  however,  the  calf  is  weak,  it  is  better  to  have 
it  with  the  cow,  as  it  will  feed  of tener  and  grow  stronger ;  or  if 
the  cow's  udder  is  inflamed,  the  calf  will  help  to  bring  it  back 
to  the  proper  condition.  The  calf  may  be  placed  in  a  near-by 
pen  and  in  sight  of  the  dam,  as  it  is  thought  she  will  be  less  ex- 
cited and  not  attempt  to  "hold  up"  her  milk. 

Feeding  the  dairy  calf.  —  On  account  of  the  high  price  of  milk 
it  becomes  necessary  to  feed  the  dairy  calf  by  hand.  This  calls 
for  extra  labor  and  sometimes  entails  extra  difficulties,  but  if 
proper  precautions  are  taken,  these  may  in  a  large  measure  be 
avoided. 


252 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Teaching  the  calf  to  drink.  —  When  the  calf  is  taken  from  the 
cow,  it  may  not  drink  at  first,  but  after  the  omission  of  a  feed 
it  becomes  hungry  and  as  a  rule  can  be  taught  to  drink  very 
easily.  A  calf  is  much  more  tractable  when  hungry.  The  calf 
will  not  learn  to  drink  any  younger  by  being  forced  to  breathe 


Fig.   80.  —  Imported  Browx  Swiss  Bull.     A  first  prize  winner.     Owned  by 

Sedgley  Farms,  Hinsdale,  111. 

The  Brown  Swiss  cattle,  natives  of  Switzerland,  are  classed  as  dual-purpose ; 
that  is,  they  yield  a  fair  quantity  of  average  quality  milk  and  the  steers  when 
fattened  make  average  beef.  In  size  the  bulls  weigh  from  1500  to  2000  pounds  ; 
the  cows  1200  to  1500  pounds.  The  color  is  usually  light  or  dark  brown,  fading 
to  gray  along  the  backbone  to  the  tail  and  about  the  belly. 


the  milk  into  its  lungs.  It  should  be  remembered  that  instinct 
teaches  the  calf  to  look  up  for  its  food,  and  the  feeder  must 
change  this  by  teaching  the  calf  to  look  down.  There  is  great 
difference  among  breeds  as  well  as  among  individuals  in  the  ease 
with  which  the  calves  are  taught  to  drink  from  the  pail.  Some 
are  taught  to  drink  at  the  first  trial  with  little  or  no  sucking  of 


BREEDING   DAIRY  CATTLE  253 

the  fingers,  whereas  others  require  much  more  persistent  effort 
and  considerable  patience  as  well  as  common  sense. 

Danger  of  overfeeding.  —  When  feeding  by  hand,  there  is 
much  danger  of  overfeeding  and  gorging  the  calf's  stomach, 
thereby  causing  digestive  disorder,  scours,  and  death.  When 
permitted  to  run  with  the  cow,  the  calf  sucks  many  times  daily, 
—  ten  to  twenty,- —  taking  only  a  little  milk  at  a  time.  When 
removed  from  the  dam  and  left  from  eight  to  twelve  hours,  it 
gets  exceedingly  hungry,  and  when  offered  milk  in  large  quan- 
tities, will  gorge  itself  and  bring  digestive  disorders  that  may 
prove  fatal.  If  there  are  two  or  more  calves  in  the  same  pen, 
it  will  be  very  necessary  to  fasten  them,  so  that  in  case  one  gets 
through  drinking  before  the  others  it  cannot  rob  them  of  their 
supply,  for  if  it  should,  it  may  prove  fatal. 

The  calf  on  whole  milk.  —  For  the  first  few  weeks,  the  calf 
should  be  given  the  milk  from  its  own  dam  rather  than  from  an- 
other cow,  as  changing  from  one  to  another  is  likely  to  throw 
the  digestive  system  out  of  balance,  and  result  in  digestive  dis- 
orders such  as  scours,  colic,  and  the  like.  When  convenient,  it  is 
best  to  feed  the  calf  three  times  a  day  for  the  first  few  days. 
The  milk  should  be  fed  from  a  clean  pail,  directly  after  milking, 
while  still  at  the  body  temperature.  The  amount  of  milk  fed 
should  be  carefully  regulated.  A  good  plan  with  the  average 
calf  is  to  give  four  pounds  —  two  quarts  —  of  whole  milk  three 
times  daily.  If  the  cow's  milk  tests  high  in  butter-fat,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  feed  that  part  of  the  milk  which  is  first  drawn  from  the 
udder,  as  it  possesses  a  lower  fat  content,  and  is  less  likely  to 
cause  digestive  disorders.  In  a  state  of  nature,  a  calf  gets  milk 
containing  about  3  per  cent  fat,  whereas  some  of  our  improved 
breeds  give  almost  twice  that  amount.  The  amount  fed  should 
be  increased  gradually,  taking  much  care  to  avoid  overfeeding. 
In  case  scours  develop,  the  feed  should  be  immediately  reduced. 

The  calf  on  skim-milk.  — Whole  milk,  being  rather  expensive, 
should  not  be  fed  longer  than  is  necessary.     The  time  for  begin- 


254  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

ning  to  substitute  skim-milk  will  vary  according  to  conditions. 
In  general  the  change  should  begin  when  the  calf  is  four  weeks  of 
age.  This  change  should  be  made  gradually,  so  that  the  calf  may 
adjust  itself  to  the  new  feed  without  trouble.  A  good  plan  is  to 
increase  the  skim-milk  one  pound  each  day  and  decrease  the 
whole  milk  by  the  same  amount,  and  thus  requiring  about  one 
week  to  make  the  complete  change.  The  skim-milk  should 
always  be  sweet  and  as  nearly  the  same  from  day  to  day  as  is 
possible.  The  amount  fed  may  be  gradually  increased  to  20 
pounds  daily,  but  it  is  not  considered  advisable  to  feed  more 
than  that  amount. 

When  two  or  three  weeks  old,  the  calf  should  be  taught  to  eat 
a  little  grain.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  placing  a  handful  in 
the  pail  immediately  after  the  calf  has  finished  drinking  the  milk. 
It  is  not  a  good  practice  to  put  the  grain  in  the  milk,  as  the  calf 
will  swallow  it  with  the  milk  and  not  learn  to  masticate  it  prop- 
erly. After  the  calf  has  learned  to  eat  the  grain,  a  box  should 
be  provided  in  which  to  feed  the  grain.  If  for  some  reason  the 
calf  fails  to  eat  the  grain,  it  must  be  removed  and  not  left  in  the 
box  to  decay.  The  grain  should  be  kept  fresh  and  clean.  At  six 
weeks  of  age,  the  calf  should  be  eating  one  pound  daily  of  the 
following  mixture :  3  parts  corn  meal,  3  parts  ground  oats,  3 
parts  wheat  bran,  and  1  part  linseed  meal. 

The  young  calf  should  be  taught  to  eat  hay  along  with  the 
grain.  If  sweet  nutritious  hay  is  put  within  its  reach,  it  will 
soon  learn  to  eat  it.  Whole  hay  is  preferred  to  chopped. 
Among  the  various  hays,  alfalfa  holds  first  place,  but  if  not  avail- 
able, bright  clover  hay  of  fine  quality  is  excellent  for  the  calf. 
The  hay  should  not  be  overripe,  as  such  hay  contains  too  much 
crude  fiber  and  is  coarse  and  woody.  The  calf  may  have  all  the 
hay  it  will  consume,  providing  it  gets  grain  and  skim-milk  in 
addition.  It  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  advisable  to  feed  silage  or 
roots  while  the  calf  is  getting  skim-milk. 

Fall   calves  may  be   turned  to  grass  the   following  spring, 


BREEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  255 

but  grain  feeding  should  also  be  practiced,  as  stronger  and  larger 
calves  will  result.  Later  in  the  summer,  when  the  grass  is  short 
and  dead,  the  flies  bad,  and  weather  very  warm,  some  green  feed, 
if  available,  would  be  a  valuable  addition.  After  the  first  or 
second  month  the  calves  should  have  access  to  cool,  clear  water, 
as  the  milk  furnished  will  not  be  sufficient  for  them  to  drink, 
particularly  if  the  weather  is  hot  and  the  flies  troublesome. 

Milk  substitutes  for  raising  calves.  —  Whole  milk  is  the  nat- 
ural food  for  the  calf.  On  it  the  average  calf  will  thrive  better 
than  on  any  other  food.  Because  of  the  high  price  of  milk 
many  substitutes  for  milk  as  a  calf  food  have  been  put  upon 
the  market  from  time  to  time.  From  a  careful  perusal  of  the 
literature,  both  with  respect  to  experiments  and  practice,  it 
seems  that  skim-milk,  grain,  and  hay  make  the  best  substitutes 
for  whole  milk  in  raising  calves.  Skim-milk,  however,  is  seldom 
available,  and  this  has  led  to  trying  the  substitutes  found  upon 
the  market.  While  skim-milk,  grain,  and  hay  are  the  best  sub- 
stitutes for  whole  milk,  it  is  true  that  healthy  calves  can  be 
raised  without  milk  of  any  kind  after  the  first  four  weeks.  In 
general  calves  so  raised  will  be  inferior  in  size,  but  they  can  be 
brought  through  strong  and  healthy. 

Removing  horns  from  young  calves.  —  When  dairy  cattle  are 
desired  without  horns,  the  removal  is  very  easily  accomplished 
while  the  calf  is  very  young.  As  soon  as  the  horn  can  be  located 
by  examining  the  head  with  the  hand,  clip  the  hair  away  from 
the  budding  horn.  Wrap  a  stick  of  caustic  potash  in  paper  to 
protect  the  hand,  dip  the  end  of  the  stick  in  water,  and  rub  this 
upon  the  tip  of  the  horn  until  the  skin  or  scurf  begins  to  loosen  up 
and  gets  red,  taking  care  all  the  time  that  none  of  the  potash 
comes  in  contact  with  the  skin  surrounding  the  horn.  In  a  few 
days  the  place  will  scale  over.     One  application  is  sufficient. 

Castrating  the  male  calf.  —  The  age  at  which  castration  is  per- 
missible varies,  but  usually  is  performed  during  the  second 
or  third  month.     If  done  in  early  life,  there  is  less  danger  of 


256  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

complications,  as  the  organs  are  not  fully  mature ;  and  if 
let  go  too  long,  the  animal  becomes  "staggy"  in  appearance 
and  will  not  make  as  good  a  feeding  calf  as  otherwise.  Castrat- 
ing a  calf  at  so  early  an  age  is  not  a  difficult  task.  The  operation 
may  be  performed  with  the  calf  standing,  if  one  is  provided  with 
"stocks"  to  hold  him ;  or  in  the  absence  of  stocks,  by  throwing 
the  calf  upon  his  side  and  holding  him  firm.  When  ready,  hold 
the  testicle  in  the  left  hand,  and  with  a  sharp  instrument  in  the 
right  make  a  good  free  incision,  remembering  that  there  are  two 
thick  coats  that  must  be  cut  through.  Now  the  testicle  may 
be  removed  by  simply  cutting  it  off,  though  this  may  be  followed 
by  a  hemorrhage.  To  avoid  this,  take  the  cord  in  the  left  hand, 
having  the  cord  between  the  thumb  and  the  index  finger. 
Now  twist  the  testicle  several  times  with  the  right  hand  and 
push  with  the  left  hand  towards  the  body  of  the  animal.  This 
will  do  away  almost  entirely  with  the  bleeding.  If,  however, 
this  seems  too  difficult,  scrape  the  cord  in  two  instead  of  cutting. 
Let  the  animal  up,  and  in  a  few  days  he  will  be  all  right  again. 


CHAPTER  XI 

CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF  DAIRY   CATTLE 

There  are  many  factors  to  be  considered  in  the  formation  and 
management  of  a  dairy  herd,  some  of  which  are  personal  in  their 
nature  and  do  not  lend  themselves  readily  to  discussion,  while 
others  are  more  general,  of  interest  to  all,  and  may  be  discussed 
intelligently.  The  two  most  important  factors  in  a  dairy  herd 
are  of  course  the  owner  and  the  cows.  A  discussion  of  the 
qualities  of  a  good  dairyman,  further  than  that  he  should  be 
in  love  with  his  work,  have  faith  in  it,  be  industrious,  and  pains- 
taking in  selecting,  breeding,  and  caring  for  his  stock,  is  a  difficult 
task,  as  all  kinds  of  men  on  all  kinds  of  farms  are  making  a  suc- 
cess with  dairy  cattle,  whereas  other  men  similarly  placed  are 
constantly  failing  of  success.  The  cow,  on  the  other  hand, 
with  her  desirable  and  undesirable  qualities  more  easily  defined 
and  more  uniform  in  their  nature,  may  be  intelligently  discussed. 

SANITARY   MILK   PRODUCTION 

By  sanitary  milk  is  meant  a  clean,  wholesome  product  pro- 
duced under  healthful  conditions.  The  principal  factors  to  be 
considered  in  its  production  are  the  cows,  the  stable,  the  milk- 
house,  the  milking,  and  the  cooling  and  storing  of  the  milk. 

The  cow.  —  In  the  production  of  clean  milk,  extra  care  must 
be  given  the  cows.  They  must  be  curried  daily  to  remove  the 
loose  hair  and  dirt.  The  udder  and  rear  parts  of  the  animal 
should  be  clipped,  thus  removing  the  long  dirt-catching  hair  and 
rendering  the  parts  much  more  easily  cleaned.  The  udder 
.      S  *       257      ■ 


258  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

should  be  wiped  with  a  damp  cloth  just  before  milking.      Hay 
should  not  be  fed  previous  to  milking,  as  it  fills  the  air  with 

dust.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
feed  clean,  nutritious  foods  and 
such  as  will  not  contribute  an 
undesirable  flavor  to  the  milk. 
The  drinking  water  for  the  cows 
should  be  clean,  fresh,  and  the 
tanks  protected  from  possible 
contamination.  Furthermore, 
Fig.  81.  —  Brown  Swiss  Cow  "  Vo-     the  COWS  should  be  healthy.      One 

Hinsdale0  nT01  **  Sedgley  ^^    cannot    produce    sanitary    milk 

and  keep  diseased  cows.  Each 
animal  composing  the  herd  should  be  tested  for  tuberculosis 
once  each  year  and  the  diseased  cases  removed. 

The  stables.  —  If  one  is  to  produce  sanitary  milk,  the  stable 
must  be  kept  clean.  This  applies  to  dust,  cobwebs,  and  the  like, 
as  well  as  to  the  manure  and  litter.  Much  light  and  good  ven- 
tilation are  essential.  The  floors  should  be  of  cement.  The 
gutters  and  litter  should  be  cleaned  out  twice  daily,  and  the 
material  hauled  to  the  field,  or  placed  in  a  protected  water- 
tight pit  outside  the  barnyard  and  of  sufficient  distance  to  pre- 
vent odors  from  reaching  the  stable.  The  covered  shed,  if  one 
is  used,  and  stable-yard,  must  be  clean  and  well  drained.  It 
is  a  rather  common  practice  to  house  other  animals,  such  as 
horses  or  sheep  and  sometimes  swine,  in  the  same  stable  with 
cattle.  If  sanitary  milk  is  to  be  the  product,  no  other  animals 
should  be  placed  in  the  same  stable  with  the  cows. 

The  cows  should  be  bedded  liberally,  particularly  if  the  floor 
is  of  cement.  The  bedding  should  not  be  permitted  to  become 
foul,  as  this  not  only  lessens  the  comfort  of  the  cattle,  but  makes 
it  more  difficult  to  keep  them  clean  and  it  promotes  disease. 
Old  straw  makes  the  best  bedding  material,  but  when  high  in 
price,  it  may  be  replaced  by  many  other  materials,  such  as  shav- 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE       259 

ings  from  the  planing  mill,  —  which  make   a  clean  and  sweet 
bedding,  —  by  tan-bark,  by  leaves,  and  the  like. 

Milk-house.  —  Preferably  the  milk-house  should  be  separate 
from  the  barn  and  located  at  a  safe  distance  from  all  sources  of 


Fig.  82.  —  A    Device    for    cooling    Milk.     Milk    cooled   immediately  after 
drawing  will  keep  sweet  much  longer  than  otherwise. 


contamination,  yet  convenient  to  the  cows.  It  should  be  divided 
into  two  rooms,  one  for  heating  water  and  cleaning  the  utensils, 
and  the  other  for  weighing,  sampling,  cooling,  and  storing  the 
milk.  The  milk-house  should  be  well  lighted  and  well  venti- 
lated, the  floors  should  be  constructed  of  cement,  and  the  walls 


260  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  ceiling  made  tight  and  smooth  in  order  that  they  may  be 
easily  cleaned.  The  windows  and  doors  should  be  screened  to 
exclude  the  flies. 

The  utensils,  such  as  the  milk-cooler,  the  pails,  cans,  strainers, 
and  the  like,  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by  first  soaking  in 
warm  water,  then  washing  in  boiling  water  containing  some 
cleaning  material,  rinsed  in  clean  hot  water,  and  then  sterilized 
with  steam.  After  thoroughly  cleaning,  they  should  be  inverted 
in  the  pure  air,  preferably  in  the  sunlight. 

Milking.  —  The  milker  should  be  cleanly  in  his  habits,  and 
should  milk  with  dry  hands.  A  small-top  milk  pail  should  be 
used  to  exclude  the  dirt  as  far  as  possible.  As  soon  as  each 
cow  is  milked,  the  milk  should  be  taken  directly  to  the  milk- 
house  and  there  weighed,  a  record  made  of  the  weight,  a  sample 
taken  to  test  for  the  fat,  then  it  should  be  strained,  and  im- 
mediately run  over  a  cooler,  reducing  its  temperature  as  low  as 
possible  (Fig.  82).  The  milk  should  then  be  kept  at  as  low  a  tem- 
perature as  possible.  A  good  plan  is  to  set  the  cans  in  a  vat 
containing  ice,  and  cover  the  vat  with  a  lid.  If  this  is  not  con- 
venient, set  the  cans  in  running  well  or  spring  water.  During 
transportation  cover  the  cans  with  a  blanket.  In  summer  the 
blanket  should  be  wet,  in  winter  dry. 

MILKING   MACHINES 

Perhaps  the  most  important  factor  retarding  the  development 
of  dairying  is  the  difficulty  of  securing  milkers  who  can  be  de- 
pended on  to  do  their  work  satisfactorily.  In  general  the  size 
of  the  dairy  is  restricted  to  the  number  of  cows  that  the  owner 
can  attend  to  at  such  times  as  his  help  fails  him.  If  the  question 
of  milking  the  cows,  without  being  so  dependent  on  hired  help, 
could  be  satisfactorily  solved,  the  number  of  animals  kept  on 
many  dairy  farms  would  increase  up  to  the  limit  of  the  acreage 
to  feed  the  animals.  Any  possibility,  therefore,  of  milking  cows 
by  machinery  is  likely  to  appeal  strongly  to  the  dairy  farmer. 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE       261 

There  are  now  machines  on  the  market  that  will  milk  cows. 
There  are,  however,  many  questions  relative  to  their  use  that 
cannot  be  answered  with  much  positiveness ;  chief  of  which  are 
the  efficiency  with  which  they  milk,  the  effect  on  the  cow,  the 
effect  on  the  milk,  and  their  economy. 

It  is  well  known  that  one  milker  may  secure  more  milk  than 
others  from  the  same  cow,  and  that  after  a  cow  has  become 
accustomed  to  a  milker,  a  change  results  in  a  decrease  in  the 
production.  It  may  be  expected,  therefore,  that  the  immediate 
effect  of  changing  from  hand  to  machine  milking  will  be  at- 
tended by  the  same  results.  The  question  as  to  the  practicability 
of  machine  milking  is,  therefore,  whether  or  not  cows  can  be 
milked  satisfactorily  by  this  method  for  an  extended  period  of 
time.  Furthermore  there  comes  the  question  of  the  effect  upon 
succeeding  generations,  whether  the  machine  milking  will  have 
a  tendency  to  discourage  the  transmission  of  milking  qualities. 
The  milking  machine  is  of  so  recent  invention  that  there  are 
not  data  enough  at  hand  to  answer  these  questions.  The  data 
available  go  to  show  that  by  taking  the  year  through,  the 
average  cow  yields  approximately  as  much  milk  to  the  machine 
method  as  to  the  hand  method  of  milking,  particularly  if  she  is 
stripped  by  hand  after  the  machine  milking. 

Mechanically,  the  machine  seems  to  do  its  work  efficiently. 
There  are,  however,  certain  difficulties  encountered  which  hin- 
der the  working  of  the  machine  and  over  which  it  can  have 
no  control.  Chief  among  these  are  the  shape,  size,  and  other 
peculiarities  of  the  cow's  udder  and  teats.  The  quality  of 
the  udder  as  regards  fleshiness  or  flabbiness  and  unevenness 
of  the  quarters,  teats  abnormally  small,  warty,  those  that  milk 
down,  and  those  that  are  very  close  together,  are  likely  to  give 
much  difficulty. 

The  effect  of  the  machine  on  the  milk,  particularly  the 
bacteria  content,  depends  much  on  the  manipulation  of  the 
apparatus  while  in  operation  as  well  as  its  care  between  the  milk- 


262 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


ings.  If  the  teat-cups  slip  from  the  teats  while  the  machine  is 
working,  many  germs  are  likely  to  be  drawn  into  the  milk  pail. 
The  machines  are  provided  with  air  filters,  and  the  efficiency 
in  keeping  the  germ  content  low  depends  much  on  the  condition 
of  these  filters.     The  milk  in  its  passage  from  the  teats  to  the  pail 


Fig.  83.  —  Dutch  Belted  Bull  "Auten."     A  first  prize  winner.    Owned  by 

R.  F.  Sanders,  Bristol,  N.  H. 

The  Dutch  Belted  breed  of  dairy  cattle  is  a  native  of  Holland.  The  cows  are 
fair  milkers,  producing  milk  of  average  richness.  The  size  is  much  smaller 
than  the  Holsteins,  the  bulls  weighing  1400  to  1800  pounds  and  the  cows  1200 
to  1500  pounds.     The  color  is  black,  with  a  white  belt  around  the  body. 


must  pass  through  the  teat-cups  and  a  few  feet  of  rubber  tubing. 
These  teat-cups  and  tubing  are  likely  to  crack,  and  these  mi- 
nute cracks  become  laden  with  germs,  which  are  hard  to  wash 
out,  and  if  the  rubber  is  steamed  sufficiently  to  kill  the  germs, 
it  soon  wears  out.  To  obviate  this  difficulty  it  is  recommended 
to  keep  the  teat-cups  and  rubber  parts  in  a  10  per  cent  solu- 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE       263 

tion  of  common  salt.  This  treatment  proves  very  effective. 
If,  therefore,  the  workman  is  skilled  in  the  manipulation  of 
the  machine  and  cares  for  it  properly,  the  germ  content  of  the 
milk  can  be  kept  low  and  a  clean  product  secured.  The  avail- 
able data  seem  to  indicate  that  the  machine  has  no  effect  on 
the  fat  content  of  the  milk,  particularly  if  the  cows  are  stripped 
by  hand,  as  is  usually  advisable. 

MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    BULL 

The  bull  calves  must  be  removed  from  the  heifers  when  four 
to  six  months  old.  In  rearing  a  bull,  accustom  it  to  being 
handled  from  calfhood.  From  the  very  beginning  it  should 
be  gently  but  firmly  managed  and  not  fondled  or  permitted 
to  frolic.  Give  it  kind,  quiet,  firm,  and  unvarying  treat- 
ment. Always  keep  it  under  subjection,  that  it  may  never 
know  its  strength  and  power.  PlaCe  a  ring  in  its  nose  before  it 
is  a  year  old.  This  ring  should  be  frequently  renewed,  in  order 
that  it  be  always  strong.  If  this  is  neglected,  the  ring  will  come 
in  two  when  most  needed.  Always  lead  and  handle  the  bull 
with  a  staff.  The  bull  should  never  run  loose  in  the  yard  or 
pasture.  It  should  be  provided  with  abundant  and  regular 
exercise.  At  such  times  it  should  be  under  restraint  and  full 
control.  For  exercise,  some  recommend  placing  the  bull  in  a 
tread-power  and  use  the  power  thus  generated  to  grind  the  grain, 
run  the  fodder  cutter  or  cream  separator,  and  the  like,  but  this 
does  not  seem  practicable.  A  very  good  plan  to  provide  exer- 
cise for  the  bull  is  to  arrange  a  wire  overhead  and  attach  the 
bull's  halter  strap  to  it.  This  will  enable  him  to  take  exercise 
at  will  and  still  keep  him  under  control.  As  age  and  strength 
increase,  a  second  ring  should  be  placed  in  the  nose  in  which  to 
attach  a  strap,  chain,  or  rope  to  supplement  the  staff  when  the 
animal  is  let  out  for  service.  Let  there  always  be  a  double  hitch- 
ing device,  so  that  the  buU  may  never  by  accident  find  himself 
free  when  he  should  be  tied.     In  the  management  of  a  bull,  it  is 


264  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

well  to  remember  that  one  physically  tired  may  be  depended 
on  to  be  quiet  and  easily  managed ;  hence  the  importance  of 
much  exercise. 

When  possible,  it  is  much  better  to  keep  the  bull  in  the 
presence  of  the  herd  than  stabled  by  himself,  in  a  lonely  place, 
as  is  so  often  the  case. 

It  is  a  common  practice  among  dairymen  to  use  immature  bulls 
and  to  dispose  of  them  before  their  merits  as  sires  are  known. 
This  is  because  bulls  of  some  age  are  likely  to  be  vicious  and 
dangerous.  Many  a  good  bull  has  been  sold  for  beef  only  be- 
cause he  was  not  easily  managed  and  it  was  thought  desirable 
to  dispose  of  him  before  some  one  was  injured.  A  bull  that 
is  known  to  get  good  offspring  should  be  kept  as  long  as  he 
is  useful  as  a  sire. 

Ringing  the  bull.  —  Many  neglect  to  ring  the  bull  calf  under 
the  erroneous  impression  that  it  is  a  difficult  task.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  very  easy.  All  one  needs  to  do  is  punch  a  hole  through 
the  membrane  between  the  two  nostrils,  insert  the  ring,  and  screw 
it  together.  If  one  has  a  bull-ringing  punch  to  make  the  hole,  if 
is  much  easier,  but  in  the  absence  of  the  punch  the  hole  may  be 
made  with  a  knife,  placing  the  ring  in  as  the  blade  is  drawn 
out.  To  restrain  the  calf  it  must  be  tied  up  securely  by  the 
head.  The  ringing  of  an  older  bull  is  more  difficult  because  of 
the  difficulty  of  restraining  him. 

THE    DAIRY   BARN 

The  dairy  cow  is  perhaps  the  most  difficult  of  farm  animals 
to  stable  properly.  The  purpose  for  which  she  is  kept,  that  of 
supplying  milk ;  the  use  to  which  the  milk  is  put,  that  of 
human  food ;  the  condition  in  which  it  is  used,  being  raw ;  the 
place  from  which  it  is  drawn,  being  exposed  to  greatest  filth ; 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  drawn,  by  hand  and  often  by  unclean 
milkmen ;  and  the  condition  of  her  dung  or  manure,  as  well  as 
the  fact  that  if  maximum  production  is  to  be  obtained,  she 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE       265 

must  be  fairly  warmly  housed,  yet  provided  with  an  abundance 
of  light  and  much  fresh  air; — all  serve  to  complicate  the 
problem  of  providing  suitable  quarters  for  the  dairy  cow. 

There  are  certain  fundamentals  that  should  be  provided  in 
every  building  in  which  the  dairy  cow  is  stabled.  Chief  among 
these  are  light,  ventilation,  sufficient  room,  smooth  and  light 
walls  and  ceilings,  a  good  floor,  a  comfortable  and  convenient 
tie,  and  properly  constructed  mangers. 


Fig.  84.  —  Dairy    Barn,    New    York    State    College    of    Agriculture 
Milk-house  in  the  Foreground. 


Light  in  abundance  should  enter  the  dairy  barn.  —  Sunlight  is 
nature's  disinfectant.  With  sufficient  light  and  proper  ventila- 
tion, germ  diseases  are  not  likely  to  occur.  It  is  said  that 
direct  sunlight  wTill  kill  the  growing  tuberculosis  germ  in  a  very 
few  minutes.  Hence,  cattle  kept  in  wTell-lighted  and  well- ven- 
tilated quarters  are  not  so  likely  to  contract  this  much 
dreaded  disease.  Again,  light  shows  dirt  and  makes  it  easy  to 
keep  the  barn  clean.  Dark  stables  are  likely  to  be  dusty  or 
dirty  and  damp,  thus  providing  conditions  for  germ  growth. 
In  addition  to  freedom  from  germ  disease,  health,  cleanliness, 
and  the  like,  a  barn  in  which  the  sun  shines  freely  furnishes  a 
cheerful  place  in  which  to  work. 


266  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Sunlight,  the  most  efficient  disinfectant  as  well  as  the  most 
powerful  of  all  medicines,  is  free,  and  provision  for  its  admit- 
tance into  any  cow  barn  need  cost  but  little.  Window  glass  is 
inexpensive.  Old  barns  that  are  dark  and  dismal  may  easily 
be  provided  with  sufficient  light  by  cutting  holes  in  the  walls 
and  putting  in  windows.  Best  results  are  obtained  by  cutting 
the  windows  long  from  top  to  bottom  and  low,  as  more  direct 
sunlight  will  fall  on  the  floors. 

Ventilation  essential  to  health.  —  The  importance  of  pure  air 
in  a  cow  stable  cannot  be  overestimated.  It  is  essential  to 
the  well  being  of  the  herd ;  without  it,  disease  will  surely  work 
destruction.  While  there  are  many  methods  of  ventilating  a 
dairy  barn,  the  King  system  in  some  of  its  modified  forms 
is  admitted  to  be  the  most  efficient.  If  in  addition  the 
windows  are  arranged  as  suggested  on  page  268,  ample  ven- 
tilation can  be  procured.  • 

King's  system  of  ventilation.  —  While  there  are  many  meth- 
ods of  arranging  this  system,  it  consists  essentially  of  two 
parts :  the  inlets  and  the  outlets,  in  the  form  of  flues.  This 
system  will  not  work  if  the  walls  of  the  barn  are  full  of  cracks 
or  the  floor  is  made  of  loose  boards.  The  floor,  walls,  ceilings, 
and  windows  must  be  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  any  large 
quantity  of  air  from  leaving  or  entering. 

The  inlets  must  be  so  constructed  as  to  meet  two  condi- 
tions ;  first,  they  must  admit  the  fresh  air  near  the  ceiling, 
where  the  barn  air  is  warm,  in  order  that  the  fresh  air  may 
mingle  with  the  warmest  air  of  the  stable  and  raise  the  tem- 
perature before  descending  to  the  floor,  thus  not  allowing 
the  animals  to  lie  in  cold  air.  In  the  second  place,  they  must 
not  permit  the  warm  air  to  pass  out  instead  of  the  cold  fresh 
air  to  come  in.  This  is  accomplished  by  constructing  the  inlet 
flue  so  that  it  begins  near  the  ground  on  the  outside  and  ends 
near  the  ceiling  on  the  inside.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  have 
the  outer  end  of  the  flue  several  feet  lower  than  the  inner  end. 


CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE       267 

The  inlets  should  be  numerous,  of  small  size,  and  constructed 
on  all  four  sides  of  the  stable  in  order  to  take  advantage  of  the 
wind,  regardless  of  the  direction  from  which  it  blows.  In  this 
way  a  large  quantity  of  air  is  admitted  and  evenly  distributed 
throughout  the  stable.  A  convenient  size  for  these  inlets  is 
4  x  12  inches,  as  this  permits  the  flue  to  be  built  between  two 


Fig.  85.  —  Interior  View  showing  Feed-carrier,  Feed  Alley,  Mangers, 
and  Stanchion  of  the  Dairy  Barn,  New  York  State  College  of 
Agriculture  at  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


4-inch  studdings.  There  should  be  one  such  flue  to  each  three 
cows.  The  flues  should  be  lined  with  building  paper,  and  this 
covered  with  matched  lumber.  All  openings,  and  especially 
the  outside  -ones,  should  be  securely  covered  with  heavy  wire 
netting. 

The  outlets  must  be  so  constructed  as  to  meet  three  con- 
ditions.    First,  the  ventilators  should  reach  to  near  the  stable 


268  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

floor  in  order  to  remove  the  air  from  that  point.  This  is 
desirable  because  the  refuse  gases  from  the  animals  being 
heavier  than  the  other  air  of  the  stable  remain  near  the  floor. 
The  animals  not  only  lie  down,  but  they  breathe  the  impuri- 
ties from  the  floor  when  standing.  The  colder  air  is  at  the  floor, 
and  it  is  desirable  to  remove  this,  particularly  in  the  winter,  in 
order  that  the  warmer  air  at  the  ceiling  may  move  downward. 
In  the  second  place,  these  ventilators  should  be  provided  with 
an  opening  near  the  ceiling  for  the  removal  of  the  warm  air  when 
the  stable  becomes  too  warm,  particularly  if  the  animals  are  to 
be  kept  in  the  stable  most  of  the  time.  This  opening  must  be 
provided  with  a  door  or  slide  to  be  closed  or  opened  at  will.  In 
the  third  place,  it  is  important  that  these  ventilators  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  afford  as  little  inconvenience  as  possible,  particu- 
larly when  they  extend  through  the  hay  loft,  where  they  are 
sometimes  in  the  way  of  the  hay  fork.  The  ventilating  flue 
should  be  as  large  as  convenient.  The  essentials  of  a  good 
ventilating  flue  are  similar  to  those  of  a  good  chimney.  In 
addition  to  their  being  of  air-tight  construction  and  as  straight 
as  conditions  will  permit,  it  should  rise  above  the  highest 
part  of  the  roof  so  as  to  get  the  full  force  of  the  wind. 

Window  ventilation.  —  If  it  is  not  possible  to  install  the  King 
system  in  one  of  its  many  forms,  the  windows  can  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  form  a  fair  system  of  ventilating  the  cow  stable. 
To  do  this,  hinge  them  at  the  bottom,  allowing  the  top  to 
open  inward.  Place  a  board  edgewise  along  each  side  of  the 
window,  so  that  the  air  will  not  enter  at  the  bottom  and  blow 
directly  on  the  animals  when  the  window  is  open.  By  leaving 
several  of  the  windows  open  an  inch  or  two  at  the  top  they  will 
provide  fair  ventilation  without  producing  serious  drafts. 
When  this  plan  is  employed,  it  is  best  to  open  the  windows  on 
the  side  of  the  barn  away  from  the  wind  and  to  regulate  the 
size  of  the  opening  according  to  the  severity  of  the  weather. 

Floors  are  best  made  of  cement.  —  While  many  objections  have 


CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY   CATTLE      269 

been  raised  to  the  use  of  cement,  such  as  its  cost,  its  being  cold 
and  damp,  injuring  the  cattle  and  the  like,  it  is  nevertheless 
the  most  desirable  material  from  which  to  construct  floors 
for  the  cow  stable.     The  gutters  and  mangers  should  likewise 


Fig.  86.  —  Interior  View  of  Dairy  Barn  showing  Litter-carrier,  Gut- 
ter, and  Arrangement  of  Windows.  New  York  State  College  of 
Agriculture. 


be  laid  in  cement.  Cement  has  two  very  great  advan- 
tages over  all  other  materials :  it  is  easily  kept  clean,  and  if 
properly  put  down,  is  durable.  If  desired,  plank  may  be  laid 
over  the  cement  where  the  cows  stand.  This,  however,  is  not 
necessary,   as  cement  can  be  made  dry  and  fairly  warm  by 


270  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

placing  a  layer  of  some  non-conducting  material,  such  as  build- 
ing paper,  an  inch  or  so  beneath  the  surface.  This  may  be 
done  as  follows :  lay  the  cement  as  usual  until  within  one  and 
one-half  inches  of  the  desired  thickness.  Now  lay  down  one 
thickness  of  heavy  building  paper,  leave  a  strip  at  least  six 
inches  wide,  along  the  edge  next  to  the  gutter.  Paint  this  build- 
ing paper  with  asphaltum  paint,  then  lay  down  another  thick- 
ness of  the  paper.  Spike  this  paper  down,  leaving  the  heads  of 
the  spikes  sticking  up  about  one-half  inch  above  the  paper.  Put 
on  the  remainder  of  the  cement  and  proceed  as  though  the 
paper  was  not  there.  This  paper  need  be  put  only  where  the 
cattle  lie.      Figs.  85  and  86  show  good  cement  construction. 

Watering  device.  —  There  are  many  devices  on  the  market 
for  keeping  a  constant  supply  of  water  before  the  animal. 
The  question  of  their  use  depends  largely  on  the  ease  of 
keeping  them  clean.  In  many  cases  they  are  provided  with 
tops  which  the  cow  soon  learns  to  raise  and  which  fall  down 
and  cover  the  device  when  she  is  not  drinking,  but  these  do 
not  keep  the  water  clean.  The  cow  with  her  mouth  partially 
full  of  grain  or  hay  often  opens  the  lid  and  slobbers  the  grain 
into  the  water.  This  material  soon  decays  and  the  device 
becomes  a  trap  for  foul-smelling  water.  Perhaps  the  safest  and 
most  convenient  plan  is  to  have  a  large  tank  located  near  by. 
This  can  be  easily  cleaned,  the  water  kept  fresh  and  cool  in 
summer,  and  the  chill  easily  driven  off  in  winter. 

THE    SILO 

The  silo  has  passed  the  experimental  stage,  and  the  economy 
as  well  as  the  practicability  of  preserving  fodder  in  it  has  been 
fully  demonstrated.  Silage  is  a  valuable  food,  and  is  relished 
by  all  classes  of  farm  animals,  but  is  more  particularly  adapted 
to  ruminating  animals  like  the  dairy  cow.  In  fact,  in  order 
to  secure  maximum  production,  some  kind  of  succulent  food  is 
necessary,  and  ordinarily  silage  will  be  found  the  most  efficient 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE       271 

as  well  as  the  most  economical  form  of  succulence  that  can  be 
provided. 

The  fundamental  principle  in  the  preservation  of  green 
forage  when  placed  in  a  silo  is  the  exclusion  of  air.  To  pre- 
vent the  air  from  reaching  the  silage,  the  silo  must  be  constructed 
with  air-tight  walls.  These  walls  must  be  rigid  enough  to  pre- 
vent springing  out  of  shape  by  the  pressure  of  the  silage,  for  in 
this  case  air  will  enter  next  to  the  wall.  The  pressure  is  greatest 
from  the  second  to  the  sixth  day  after  filling.  The  silage  at 
this  time  begins  to  heat  and  settle,  and  if  the  walls  are  not 
sufficiently  rigid  to  prevent  any  bulging,  a  considerable  loss  of 
silage  is  likely  to  result.  The  walls  should  be  perpendicular, 
and  the  diameter  the  same  from  the  bottom  to  the  top. 

The  size  of  the  silo.  —  On  being  exposed  to  the  air,  silage 
spoils  rapidly,  and  to  avoid  this  must  be  fed  off  at  the  rate  of 
one  and  one-half  to  two  inches 
daily  in  the  winter  and  three 
inches  in  the  summer.  A  good 
plan  is  so  to  construct  the  silo 
that  the  horizontal  feeding  area 
for  each  cow  will  be  approxi- 
mately six  square  feet  daily.  If 
we  feed  six  square  feet  off  the 
top  and  two  inches   down,  this 

means  One  cubic  foot  to  the  COW.      Fig.    87.  —  Dutch    Belted    Cow 

The  approximate  weight  of  a  cu-        "EcH°  *"    A J^st  Prize  ™nneT' 

.  .    .,  ...  Owned  by  R.  F.  Sanders,  Bristol, 

bic  foot  of  silage  is  forty  pounds,        n.  h. 

though  this  varies  much  between 

the  top  and  the  bottom.     As  this  is  about  the  proper  quantity 

to  feed  daily,  it  becomes  evident   that  six  square  feet  is  the 

proper  area  for  each  cow. 

The  table  that  follows  gives  the  capacity  of  a  silo  of  various 
widths  and  depths;  also  the  area  required  to  fill  it,  and  the 
approximate  quantity  that  should  be  fed  daily  to  lower  the 


272 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


surface  two  inches  per  day,  based  on  an  average  weight  of 
forty  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.  By  examining  the  table  one 
can  get  an  idea  of  the  size  desired  ;  also  the  economy  of  increas- 
ing the  depth : 

Approximate  capacity  in  tons  of  round  silos  of  different  diameters  and 
depths  and  the  area  required  to  fill  them  as  well  as  the  amount  that  should 
be  fed  daily 


Inside 
Diameter 

Feet' 

Height 
Feet 

Capacity 
Tons 

Acreage  to 

fill 

10  Tons  to  Acre 

Amount  that 
should  be 
fed  Daily 

10 

28 

42 

4.2 

525 

10 

32 

51 

5.1 

525 

10 

36 

61 

6.1 

525 

12 

30 

67 

6.7 

755 

12 

34 

80 

8.0 

755 

12 

3S 

94 

9.4 

755 

14 

30 

91 

9.1 

1030 

14 

34 

109 

10.9 

1030 

14 

38 

128 

12.8 

1030 

16 

30 

119 

11.9 

1340 

16 

34 

143 

14.3 

1340 

16 

38 

167 

16.7 

1340 

16 

42 

193 

19.3 

1340 

18 

36 

196 

19.6 

1700 

18 

40 

229 

22.9 

1700 

18 

46 

282 

28.2 

1700 

20 

36 

243 

24.3 

2100 

20 

42 

300 

30.0 

2100 

20 

50 

382 

38.2 

2100 

22 

36 

292 

29.2 

2300 

22 

42 

366 

36.6 

2300 

22 

50 

469 

46.9 

2300 

Filling  the  silo.  —  Occasionally  the  construction  of  a  silo  is 
criticized,  whereas  the  fault  may  be  found  in  the  method  of 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE       273 

filling.  It  is  essential  to  the  preserving  of  silage  that  it  be 
well  packed,  keeping  it  level  and  thoroughly  tramped.  This 
very  important  task  is  often  intrusted  to  a  lad  who  spends  his 


Fig.  88.  —  Silo  in  the  Pkocess  of  Construction  by  Farm  Labor.  This 
silo,  16  feet  in  diameter  and  30  feet  high,  was  completed  at  a  cost  of  one 
dollar  for  each  ton  capacity. 

time  in  standing  in  the  breeze  of  the  blower,  with  the  result 
that  the  silage  comes  out  of  the  silo  somewhat  molded  the 
following  winter. 


274  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

In  filling  with  corn  there  is  a  tendency  toward  an  uneven 
distribution  of  the  ears ;  these,  being  heavier  than  the  other 
parts  of  the  plant,  are  blown  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  silo. 
To  obviate  this,  many  devices  are  employed,  perhaps  the  most 
simple  of  which  is  a  long  bag  open  at  both  ends  and  fastened 
to  the  end  of  the  carrier.  By  means  of  a  small  rope  attached 
to  this  bag  the  corn  may  be  deposited  in  any  part  of  the  silo 
desired. 


CHAPTER  XII 

FEEDING  BEEF   CATTLE 

Feeding  beef  cattle  differs  considerably  from  feeding  dairy 
cattle,  as  well  as  from  feeding  horses.  In  the  case  of  horse  feed- 
ing, the  product  sought  is  energy  in  the  form  of  work  ;  in  the 
case  of  dairy  cattle  the  product  is  milk;  whereas  in  the  case 
of  beef  cattle  the  product  is  flesh.  This  calls  for  special 
methods  of  feeding,  special  foods  or  food,  combinations,  and 
special  management.  Much  discussion  was  devoted  (in  Chap- 
ter IX,  page  203)  to  the  production  of  milk  in  which  it  was 
treated  largely  as  an  independent  industry  because  of  the 
fact  that  the  successful  dairymen  have  time  for  little  if  anything 
else;  whereas  beef  production  is  not  a  special  industry  and 
does  not  require  all  of  the  feeder's  time,  and  on  the  average 
is  conducted  successfully  only  in  connection  with  grain  farm- 
ing. Among  successful  beef  producers,  beef-raising  is  regarded 
as  a  convenient  way  of  marketing  grain,  as  well  as  a  means 
of  conserving  soil  fertility,  and  hence  the  ability  to  grow  more 
grain  to  feed  more  stock  and  also  a  profitable  means  of  utiliz- 
ing much  coarse  forage  which  otherwise  would  be  largely  wasted. 

ESSENTIALS    OF   FEEDING    CATTLE 

In  feeding  beef  cattle  one  of  the  most  important  factors  is 
the  kind  of  cattle,  for  on  the  choice  of  them  will  turn  in  a 
large  measure  the  possibility  of  success.  In  considering  the 
cattle  with  a  view  of  estimating  their  profit  as  beef  producers, 
there   are  a  number  of   essentials  to   be  taken  into  account. 

275 


276 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Chief  among  these  are  the  age,  form,  condition,  quality,  uni- 
formity, and  the  price. 

Age  at  which  to  feed  cattle.  —  In  recent  years  no  question  has 
been  more  discussed,  or  the  object  of  more  experimentation 
among  cattle  feeders,  than  the  most  profitable  age  at  which  to 
fatten  cattle.  This  interest  has  been  due  in  part  at  least  to 
the  fact  that  writers  on  agricultural  topics  strongly  advised 
feeding  young  cattle,  whereas  the  professional  feeder,  whose 
livelihood  depends  upon  his  success,  has  shown  a  decided 
preference  for  older  cattle.  To  secure  some  idea  of  the  age  at 
which  gains  can  be  made  most  cheaply,  let  us  examine  the  com- 
position of  the  body  of  an  old  and  young  steer.  In  Jordan's 
" Feeding  of  Animals,"  we  note  the  composition  of  the  body 
of  an  aged  fat  steer  and  of  a  fat  calf  to  be  as  follows :  ■ — 


Water 
Per  Cent 

Ash 
Per  Cent 

Protein 
Per  Cent 

Fat 
Per  Cent 

Aged  fat  steer . 
Fat  calf  .... 

49.5 
64.6 

4.4 

4.8 

15.6 

16.5 

30.5 
14.1 

From  this  we  observe  that  the  body  of  the  fat  calf  con- 
tains 15.1  per  cent  more  water  and  16.4  per  cent  less  fat  than 
that  of  the  aged  fat  steer,  the  ash  and  protein  being  practically 
the  same.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  aged  steer 
in  fattening  required  considerably  more  solid  food,  particu- 
larly those  foods  rich  in  fat,  whereas  the  calf  requires  less 
fat,  and  less  dry-matter  to  the  pound  of  gain.  As  water  is 
cheaper  than  fat  we  would  expect  the  calf  to  make  the  cheaper 
gains,  and  such  is  the  case. 

Not  only  does  the  age  influence  the  cheapness  of  the  gains, 
but  it  affects  the  rate  of  gain  as  well.  Here,  too,  the  younger 
animal  has  the  advantage ;  that  is  to  say,  all  things  being  equal, 
the  younger  animal  will  make  more  rapid  gains  for  1000  pounds 


FEEDING   BEEF  CATTLE 


277 


live  weight  than  the  aged  one.  This  is  due  in  part  no  doubt 
to  the  fact  that  the  younger  animal's  digestive  organs  are  likely 
to  be  in  better  condition,  the  teeth  are  sounder,  the  glands 
more  active,  so  that  the  food  is  better  masticated,  more 
thoroughly  digested  and  assimilated  than  in  the  aged  steer. 


Fig.  89.  —  The    Noted   Shorthorx  Bull    "Avoxdale." 

ter  &  Ross,  Mansfield,  Ohio. 


Owned  by  Carpen- 


The  Shorthorn,  a  native  of  England,  is  the  most  popular  beef  breed  all  over  the 
world.  Though  not  so  early  maturing,  they  attain  the  largest  size  of  any  of  the 
beef  breeds,  cows  weighing  around  1500  pounds,  bulls  2200,  and  finished  steers 
from  1200  to  1500  pounds.  The  bulls  are  noted  for  the  excellency  of  their 
get  when  bred  to  native  cows,  while  the  finished  steers  are  noted  for  their  good 
quarters.     In  color  they  are  red,  white,  and  roan. 


Form  for  feeding  cattle.  —  The  form  of  the  steers  must  be 
such  as  to  meet  two  conditions:  those  demanded  by  the  cattle 
feeder,  and  those  demanded  by  the  butcher.  The  cattle  feeder 
wishes  an  animal  that  will  make  rapid  and  economical  gains  in 
the  feed  lot,  while  the  butcher  wishes  one  that  will  dress  a  rela- 


278  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

tively  high  percentage  of  edible  meat,  particularly  of  the  high- 
priced  cuts,  such  as  prime  of  rib,  porterhouse,  sirloin,  rump, 
and  round,  which  are  taken  from  the  back,  loin,  rump,  and 
quarters.  In  general  the  form  that  best  fills  these  conditions 
will  be  low  set,  deep,  broad,  and  compact,  rather  than  high  up, 
gaunt,  narrow,  loosely  made.  The  cattle  should  be  low  set, 
standing  on  short  legs,  as  animals  of  this  form  are  likely  to 
prove  good  feeders  capable  of  maturing  early.  The  top  and 
bottom  lines  should  be  straight  and  nearly  parallel,  the  flanks 
should  be  low,  thus  giving  much  depth  and  great  capacity. 

Cattle  possessing  such  a  form  are  likely  to  prove  rapid  and 
economic  producers  while  in  the  feed  lot,  thus  making  a  profit 
for  the  feeder,  and  when  slaughtered  to  dress  a  relatively  high 
percentage  of  edible  meat,  particularly  of  the  high-priced  cuts. 
Such  an  animal  should  dress  out  55  to  60  per  cent  or  better  with 
approximately  one-half  of  the  edible  meat  in  the  region  of 
the  valuable  cuts,  and  this  will  sell  for  about  75  per  cent  of 
the  value  of  the  entire  carcass,  leaving  the  other  half  from  the 
region  of  low-priced  meat  to  bring  the  other  25  per  cent  of  the 
valuation. 

Condition  of  feeding  cattle.  —  In  considering  steers  to  feed, 
their  condition  should  be  carefully  scrutinized  from  two  points 
of  view :  their  thrift,  and  the  amount  of  flesh  they  possess. 
Feeding  cattle  should  be  thrifty  but  not  coarse.  Thrift  is  indi- 
cated by  a  wide,  deep  chest,  by  fullness  in  the  heart  girth,  by 
depth  and  breadth  of  body,  and  by  good  handling  quality. 
While  the  cattle  should  not  be  coarse,  too  much  refinement  is 
likely  to  prove  disappointing,  as  it  often  means  delicacy  or 
lack  of  thrift,  and  no  animal  lacking  in  thrift  should  find  its  way 
into  the  feed  lot. 

To  make  rapid  and  economic  feeders  the  cattle  should  not 
possess  much  flesh  at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period. 
All  things  being  equal,  the  thinner  the  steer  at  the  beginning 
of  the  feeding  process  the  more  rapid  and  economical  gains  it 


FEEDING   BEEF  CATTLE 


279 


will  make,  providing  there  is  no  lack  of  thrift.  It  is  easily  pos- 
sible, however,  for  a  steer  to  be  so  low  in  flesh  as  to  lack  thrift. 
Such  animals  require  time  to  get  back  into  normal  condition, 
and  there  is  a  possibility  of  their  being  stunted  permanently. 
If  we  examine  the  bodies  of  the  thin  and  fat  steer,  it  may  give 
us  an  insight  as  to  why  the  animal  gains  in  flesh  more  rapidljr 
and  on  less  feed  when  in  a  thin  condition.  In  Jordan's  "  Feed- 
ing of  Animals "  we  note  the  composition  of  the  bodies  of 
such  steers  to  be  as  follows :  — 


Water 
Per  Cent 

Ash 
Per  Cent 

Protein 
Per  Cent 

Fat 
Per  Cent 

Thin  steer    .     .     . 
Fat  steer .... 

66.2 

49.5 

5.9 

4.4 

19.2 
15.6 

8.7 
30.5 

It  seems  that  the  body  of  the  thin  steer  contains  a  relatively 
high  amount  of  water  and  low  fat,  whereas  the  fat  steer's  body 
contains  a  relatively  small  amount  of  water  and  high  fat  con- 
tent. This  may  have  a  bearing  on  the  fact  that  a  thin  steer 
gains  more  rapidly  and  on  less  feed  than  a  fat  one,  and  also 
on  the  fact  that  as  the  full  feeding  proceeds  the  gains  are  made 
less  rapidly  and  require  more  feed. 

Quality  of  feeding  cattle.  —  Quality  should  be  considered  from 
two  points  of  view  :  general  quality,  and  handling  quality.  By 
general  quality  is  meant  that  general  refinement  of  external  form 
found  in  the  neat  head,  fine  horn,  dense  bone,  smooth  outline, 
and  compact  body.  This  quality  is  affected  by  nothing  so  much 
as  breeding.  General  quality  and  good  breeding  are  closely 
associated,  well-bred  animals  being  likely  to  possess  quality, 
whereas  it  is  often  wanting  in  the  common-bred  steers.  The 
importance  of  general  quality  in  feeding  cattle  cannot  be  over- 
estimated, as  steers  possessing  it  will  give  higher  profit  to  both 


280  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  cattle  feeder  and  the  butcher,  not  because  such  animals 
will  necessarily  make  more  meat  from  a  given  amount  of  food, 
but  because  they  will  dress  out  better  and  bring  a  higher  price 
on  the  market. 

Good  handling  quality  indicates  that  the  steer  is  a  good 
feeder.  By  good  handling  quality  is  meant  a  fine  silky  hair 
and  a  loose  mellow  skin.  These  are  associated  with  thrift  and 
the  ability  to  take  on  flesh  rapidly  and  economically,  whereas 
a  heavy  stiff  hide  is  considered  to  indicate  slower  fattening. 
The  previous  care  that  the  steers  have  received  has  a  marked 
influence  on  the  hair  and  skin,  and  hence  on  the  handling  quality. 
The  importance  of  good  handling  quality  is  not  to  be  over- 
looked if  one  is  to  succeed  in  feeding  cattle. 

Uniformity  in  feeding  cattle.  —  Feeding  cattle  should  be  uni- 
form in  age,  weight,  color,  type  or  form,  condition,  breeding, 
and  quality.  As  we  have  observed,  young  steers  gain  more 
rapidly  than  aged  ones,  and,  as  we  shall  see,  aged  steers  fatten 
more  rapidly  than  young  ones ;  hence  it  is  not  likely  that  a  lot 
of  steers  of  mixed  ages  would  all  be  ready  to  market  at  the 
same  time.  If  some  of  the  animals  are  fat,  while  others  are 
only  half  fat,  they  will  not  command  as  high  a  price  on  the 
market  as  though  they  were  uniform  in  flesh.  Not  only  must 
they  be  uniform  in  flesh,  but  they  must  be  approximately  uni- 
form in  weight  if  the  highest  price  is  to  be  obtained.  Butchers 
and  packers  desire  cattle  uniform  in  weight,  so  that  the  cuts 
of  meat  will  run  uniform,  as  their  trade  demands.  While  uni- 
formity of  color  does  not  add  to  the  animal's  capacity  to  take 
on  flesh  economically  or  to  his  ability  to  dress  out  well,  yet 
the  butchers  desire  such  similarity  and  are  willing  to  pay 
for  it.  The  cattle  should  be  uniform  in  type  or  form.  If  they 
vary  in  type,  the  weight  of  the  cuts  of  meat  will  likewise  vary, 
and  to  this  the  butcher  objects.  The  butcher  also  demands 
animals  equal  in  condition  and  quality,  to  meet  the  demands 
of  his  trade  calls. 


FEEDING   BEEF  CATTLE 


281 


FOOD    REQUIREMENTS    FOR   BEEF 

The  quantity  of  food  required  to  fatten  a  beef  animal  depends 
on  many  factors,  chief  of  which  are  the  kind  of  food  and  the  age, 
weight,  and  condition  as  well  as  the  individuality  of  the  animal. 
Some  foods  promote  the  formation  of  flesh  and  bone,  and  as  a 
result  the  animal  tends  to  grow,  whereas  certain  other  food  en- 
courages fat  formation  and  the  animal  tends  to  fleshen  rather 
than  to  grow.  The  age,  weight,  and  condition  also  have  much 
influence  on  the  amount  of  food  required  to  fatten  the  animal. 


•PI                              '^ 

1  :'"l  J    •       M 

1     *  t   *' 

■i 

Fig.  90.  —  A  Prize  Winning  Shorthorn  Bull.    Owned  by  Carpenter  &  Ross, 

Mansfield,  Ohio. 


The  younger  the  animal  the  less  food  will  be  required  to  produce 
a  given  gain  in  flesh.  The  thinner  the  animal,  providing  it  is 
thrifty,  the  less  food  will  be  required  to  produce  a  given  weight. 
Perhaps  most  important  of  all  is  the  individuality  of  the  steer. 
Some  steers  will  gain  three  pounds  daily,  while  others  receiving 
the  same  amount  and  kind  of  food  will  gain  but  one  pound. 
The  only  method  of  distinguishing  the  animal  that  makes  three 


282 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


pounds  from  the  animals  that  make  but  one  is  by  external 
appearance.  The  external  indication  of  a  good  feeder  is  a 
low-set  form,  being  deep,  broad,  and  compact,  with  low-down 
flanks,  showing  that  the  animal  possesses  great  capacity  for 
digestion  and  assimilation  (p.  278-279). 

No  definite  quantities  can  be  given  that  will  apply  to  all 
animals,  to  all  conditions,  and  to  all  foods.  The  Wolff-Lehman 
standards  furnish  us  a  guide  to  be  modified  by  the  judgment 
and  experience  of  the  feeder :  — 

Wolff-Lehman  standards,  showing  the  amount  of  food  required  per  1000 
pounds  live  weight  for  both  the  growing  and  fattening  beef  animal 


Condition  of  Animal 

Digestive  Nutrients 

Growing  Cattle 
Beef  Breeds 

Dry- 
Matter 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Age,  Mo. 

2-3 

Weight 

160 

23 

4.2 

13.0 

2.0 

1:4.2 

3-6 

330 

24 

3.5 

12.8 

1.5 

1 

4.7 

6-12 

550 

25 

2.5 

13.2 

0.7 

1 

6.0 

12-18 

750 

24 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

1 

6.8 

18-24 

950 

24 

1.8 

12.0 

0.4 

1 

7.2 

Fattening  Cattle 
First  period     .     . 
Second  period 
Third  period    .     . 

30 
30 
26 

2.5 
3.0 

2.7 

15.0 
14.5 
15.0 

0.5 
0.7 
0.7 

1 
1 
1 

6.5 
5.4 
6.2 

WINTERING    STOCKERS   AND    FEEDERS 

Large  numbers  of  feeding  cattle  are  purchased  in  fall  and 
early  winter  for  the  special  purpose  of  economically  disposing 
of  such  roughage  as  corn  stalks,  straw  stack,  second-class  clover 
hay,  clover  chaff  after  the  seed  has  been  removed,  and  the  like. 
Wintering  cattle  with  a  view  to  fattening  the  following  summer 
on  pasture  is  a  very  convenient  way  of  converting  such  feeds 
into  cash.    The  cattle  feeder  is  now  confronted  with  the  question 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  283 

as  to  how  well  he  shall  winter  these  animals.  That  is  to  say, 
he  is  often  at  a  loss  to  know  whether  to  feed  a  small  allowance  of 
grain  along  with  the  roughage  or  to  feed  the  roughage  alone. 
If  he  feeds  the  roughage  alone,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  steers 
can  be  wintered  without  loss  in  weight,  unless  the  roughage  is 
of  good  quality  and  a  legume,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpea 
hay.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  feeds  grain,  then  comes  the  ques- 
tion as  to  how  much  shall  be  fed,  for  it  is  well  known  that  if 
steers  are  grained  too  liberally  through  the  winter,  they  will 
not  do  so  well  the  following  summer  on  pasture. 

While  different  systems  of  feeding  should  undoubtedly  be 
recommended  for  cattle  of  various  ages  and  quality,  there  are  at 
least  three  conditions  that  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  :  first, 
cattle  wintered  on  roughage  alone,  providing  they  retain  their 
thrift,  will  make  more  economical  beef  producers  the  following 
summer  on  pasture  than  when  they  receive  grain  along  with 
the  roughage;  second,  cattle  wintered  on  a  too  liberal  grain 
ration  may  fail  to  make  a  profit  the  following  summer  on  pas- 
ture; and  third,  other  things  being  equal,  cattle  wintered  on  a 
ration  containing  a  liberal  supply  of  protein,  particularly  if  this 
protein  is  contained  in  the  roughage,  as  clover,  alfalfa,  or  cow- 
pea  hay,  will  make  greater  and  more  economical  gains  during 
both  winter  and  summer  than  if  this  nitrogenous  roughage  is 
wanting.  It  is  true  that  animals  receiving  this  nitrogenous 
roughage  will  not  finish  or  fatten  so  quickly,  but  they  will  make 
gains  more  economically,  and  the  quality  of  the  flesh  will 
be  better  than  otherwise.  From  practical  experience,  there- 
fore, it  would  seem  best  to  provide  considerable  protein 
in  the  ration  of  the  wintering  stocker  or  feeder.  If  this 
protein  is  lacking  in  the  roughage,  in  which  it  should  be 
provided  if  possible,  then  supply  the  needed  protein  by 
feeding  such  grains  as  cotton-seed  meal  or  linseed-oil  meal 
in  rather  limited  quantities  in  the  grain  ration.  In  case 
the  grain  is  fed  no  suggestions  can  be  given  as  to  the  exact 


284  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

amount,  but  when  one  is  simply  wintering  the  steers  without 
any  attempt  to  fatten  them,  the  maximum  amount  should  not 
exceed  six  pounds  daily,  and  perhaps  better  results  can  be 
obtained  by  feeding  two  to  four  pounds  daily. 

Roughage  increases  feeding  capacity.  —  It  is  conceded  by  ex- 
perienced cattle  feeders  that  roughing  steers  preparatory  to  put- 
ting them  on  full  feed  requires  much  skill.  The  feeding  of  an 
abundance  of  roughage  encourages  the  enlargement  and  develop- 
ment of  the  digestive  organs,  thus  increasing  the  capacity  for 
handling  more  concentrated  feeds  later  on.  This,  of  course, 
gives  the  thin  animal  a  large  paunch,  which  must  certainly  be 
reduced  before  the  animal  is  ready  for  market.  A  large- 
paunched  steer  is  not  wanted  on  any  fat-cattle  market.  From 
this  it  would  seem  that  before  beginning  to  feed,  or  in  the  early 
part  of  the  feeding  process,  the  enlarging  of  the  paunch  should 
be  encouraged  in  order  to  increase  the  capacity,  while  the  latter 
part  of  the  feeding  period  should  be  devoted  to  reducing  this 
paunch  and  smoothing  up  the  steer. 

SUMMER   FEEDING   ON   PASTURE 

Fattening  cattle  in  the  summer  on  pasture  is  usually  more 
profitable  than  winter  fattening.  By  such  feeding  the  labor  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum,  there  is  no  handling  of  bulky  foods,  no 
bedding  to  provide,  no  lots  to  clean  of  manure,  and  no  outlay  for 
an  extensive  plant,  such  as  sheds,  lots,  and  the  like.  Approxi- 
mately the  only  labor  in  summer  fattening  is  that  of  feeding  the 
grain,  when  such  is  fed. 

There  are  two  methods  of  fattening  beef  cattle  on  pasture : 
pasturing  alone  with  no  grain,  which  is  called  "  grass  fatten- 
ing"; and  feeding  grain,  often  all  they  will  eat,  in  connection 
with  the  pasturage.  Which  of  these  methods  should  be  em- 
ployed will  depend  on  conditions.  When  land  is  cheap  and 
there  is  an  abundance  of  pasture,  one  may  secure  fairly  good 
returns  from  pasturing  without  grain.     On  the  other  hand,  if 


FEEDING   BEEF  CATTLE  285 

the  pasture  is  limited,  the  land  high  in  price,  and  one  has  the 
grain,  no  doubt  it  will  be  more  profitable  to  feed  grain  in  con- 
nection with  the  pasture.  The  previous  treatment  of  the  cattle 
may  likewise  have  an  influence.  To  .get  good  results  from 
fattening  cattle  on  pasture  alone,  the  cattle  should  be  wintered 
very  largely  on  roughage  and  should  be  rather  thin  in  flesh 
though  not  lacking  in  thrift.  Cattle  that  are  accustomed  to 
grain  and  in  the  habit  of  depending  on  it  very  largely  for  their 
nourishment  will  shrink  heavily  if  the  grain  is  refused  them. 
While  cheaper  gains  can  usually  be  made  from  pasturing  alone, 
the  cattle  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  made  very  fat,  and  hence  will  not 
command  a  high  price  on  the  market,  which  will  often  offset  the 
advantage  of  cheap  gains.  There  are,  however,  many  ex- 
perienced cattle  feeders  who  rely  on  grass  fattening,  particularly 
on  the  edge  of  the  corn-belt.  Cattle  feeders  in  the  corn-belt 
will,  as  a  rule,  secure  greater  returns  from  a  liberal  grain  feed 
in  connection  with  the  pasture. 

How  to  turn  to  grass.  —  As  cattle  are  very  subject  to  bloating 
if  turned  to  succulent  grass,  especially  if  wet  with  dew  or  rain, 
much  care  should  be  exercised.  This  is  particularly  true  on 
clover  or  alfalfa.  If  it  is  convenient,  one  should  turn  the  cattle 
out  for  an  hour  or  so  in  the  afternoon  and  then  take  them  up 
for  the  day,  turning  them  out  the  following  day  at  noon  and 
leaving  a  few  hours  longer,  then  taking  them  up  again,  when  on 
the  third  day  they  may  be  allowed  to  remain. 

Feeding  grain  to  cattle  on  pasture.  —  The  amount  and  kind  of 
grain  that  should  be  fed  to  fattening  cattle  on  pasture  will  de- 
pend much  on  the  previous  treatment,  age,  condition,  and 
quality  of  the  cattle  as  well  as  the  time  of  marketing  them. 
Young  stock,  that  are  to  be  made  thick  fat,  will  need  grain  con- 
tinually throughout  the  summer.  Older  cattle,  that  are  not  in- 
tended for  market  until  fall,  may  well  have  their  grain  withheld 
until  the  pasture  begins  to  get  short,  say  along  in  July.  On  the 
other  hand,  many  cattle  feeders  prefer  to  "warm  the  cattle  up" 


286  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

in  the  feed  lot  before  going  to  grass,  and  then  to  finish  them  on 
pasture,  disposing  of  them  by  the  middle  of  July  before  the 
hottest  of  the  weather  and  just  about  the  time  the  pasture  begins 
to  fail.  Under  this  system  it  would  be  necessary  to  feed  grain 
liberally  from  the  beginning  of  the  pasture  season.  While  this 
method  has  much  to  commend  it,  there  is  the  serious  objec- 
tion of  turning  cattle  to  succulent  pasture  when  they  are  receiv- 
ing a  liberal  supply  of  grain.  On  account  of  the  very  succulent 
grass  so  early  in  the  spring  such  cattle  " drift"  or  shrink  con- 
siderably, even  though  the  grain  is  continued.  This  drift  is 
so  serious  that  if  the  cattle  are  intended  for  market  by,  say, 
the  middle  of  June,  it  will  be  more  profitable  on  the  average  to 
finish  them  in  a  dry-lot.  In  addition  to  the  disadvantage  of 
the  heavy  drift  it  is  poor  economy  to  turn  cattle  to  pasture 
before  the  grass  gets  a  good  start;  this  is  particularly  true 
if  the  grass  was  closely  cropped  the  preceding  fall. 

There  is  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  kind  of  grain  that 
should  be  fed  cattle  of  the  various  ages  on  pasture.  In  some 
cases  perhaps  corn  alone  cannot  be  improved  on,  particularly 
if  there  is  some  leguminous  grass,  as  clover  or  alfalfa,  in  the 
pasture.  Some  contend  that  with  young  stock  especially,  it  is 
advisable  to  supplement  corn  with  a  food  rich  in  protein,  as 
linseed  or  cotton-seed  meal,  whereas  in  the  experience  of  others 
the  addition  of  this  extra  protein  food  has  caused  the  young 
stock  to  grow  and  not  fatten  so  readily  as  if  the  extra  food 
was  withheld.  Among  this  class  of  cattle  feeders,  when  they 
supplement  corn,  it  is  more  likely  to  be  for  the  older  cattle. 

The  pastures.  —  There  are  two  general  plans  for  providing 
pasture  land  :  permanent  pastures ;  and  pastures  in  rotation 
with  other  crops.  Permanent  pastures  are  rapidly  disappear- 
ing from  those  sections  of  the  country  suitable  for  growing  grain, 
because  of  the  increased  value  of  the  land  for  grain  raising,  but 
there  are  vast  areas  unsuited  for  grain  growing  which  can  be 
very  profitably  utilized  for  permanent  pasture.     In  fact  much 


FEEDING   BEEF  CATTLE  287 

of  the  land  east  of  the  Sciota,  south  of  the  Ohio,  and  west  of 
the  Missouri  rivers  is  suitable  for  permanent  pasture.  This 
cheap  land,  much  of  it,  could  be  laid  to  permanent  pastures  and 
yield  a  very  creditable  return  as  pasture  for  beef  cattle.  In 
fact,  if  conditions  continue  in  the  future  as  in  the  past,  much 
of  our  beef  must  come  from  these  cheap  outlying  lands.  The 
grains  grown  on  the  grain  farms  are  rapidly  becoming  too  valu- 
able as  food  for  human  consumption  to  permit  of  their  being 
fed  to  animals. 

No  definite  suggestions  can  be  given  as  to  the  choice  between 
permanent  pastures  and  pastures  in  rotation  further  than  to  say 
that  all  depends  on  the  location.  If  those  farms  or  parts  of  farms 
that  are  unsuited  for  growing  grains  can  be  laid  to  permanent 
pasture,  it  will,  on  the  average,  be  profitable  to  do  so.  Each  of 
these  systems  has  certain  advantages.  For  example,  permanent 
pasture  simplifies  the  fencing,  provides  the  water  supply,  the 
shade,  and  the  feed  racks  or  bunks,  while  pastures  in  rotation 
give  a  much  better  opportunity  to  distribute  the  manure  to 
all  parts  of  the  farm.  Permanent  pastures  even  if  seriously 
affected  by  drouth  are  not  likely  to  be  a  failure,  while  pastures 
in  rotation  occasionally  do  fail.  Properly  managed  permanent 
pastures  will  increase  in  value  with  age. 

The  pasture  crop  is  perhaps  the  most  neglected  of  farm  crops 
at  the  present  time.  Many  pastures  that  are  now  supporting 
one  animal  to  two  or  three  acres  can  with  proper  care  be  made 
to  support  twice  the  number.  First,  secure  a  good  stand.  Many 
pastures  do  not  now  possess  more  than  one-half  a  crop.  Blue- 
grass  should  form  the  basis  of  all  permanent  pastures  in  the 
East,  but  should  be  reenforced  by  white  clover,  orchard-grass, 
and  red-top.  The  pasture  should  be  harrowed  and  reseeded 
each  spring  until  a  stand  is  secured.  Second,  keep  down  the 
weeds.  Animals  eat  the  grass  and  leave  the  weeds.  To  ob- 
viate this,  pastures  should  be  mown  twice  each  year.  This 
not  only  keeps  the  weeds  down,  but  keeps  the  pasture  in  such 


288 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


condition  that  the  animals  will  feed  more  evenly  over  the  entire 
field.  Animals  are  likely  to  feed  where  the  grass  is  rather 
short  and  tender,  and  leave  the  ranker  growth.  Third,  drain 
pastures  well.  This  is  often  entirely  neglected,  and  the  parts  of 
the  farm  that  are  too  wet  to  grow  crops  are  left  to  pasture. 
Fourth,  top-dress  permanent  pastures  with  manure  when  con- 
venient.    Often  corn  stalks  or  straw  scattered  over  the  north 


4i.     ^H    HL '              ^H              IhuII           Bk"                       B 

- 

Fig.  91.  —  Fattening  Steers  on  Pasture.     Feeding  Clover  Hay  to  sup- 
plement the  Pasture. 


slopes  when  the  land  is  broken  will  materially  improve  the 
pasture.  Another  factor  which  often  reduces  the  total  yield  of 
a  pasture  is  the  fact  that  the  grass  is  pastured  too  early  in  the 
spring,  which  hinders  the  growth  of  the  young  plants  before  they 
get  a  good  start,  whereas  if  they  were  left  a  week  longer,  they 
would  return  a  much  greater  total  yield.  Pastures  thus  treated 
will  increase  in  value  with  age,  as  has  been  practically  demon- 
strated, as  far  east  as  Central  New  York  and  as  far  west  as 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  289 

Western  Missouri,  where  there  are  permanent  pastures  vary- 
ing in  age  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  a  century,  and  are  now 
supporting  one  animal  to  each  acre  from  four  to  six  months 
each  year  without  extra  feed,  and  supporting  two  animals  an 
equal  length  of  time  when  grain  is  fed  in  addition.    (Fig.  91.) 

WINTER   FEEDING   IN   DRY-LOT 

While  feeding  steers  in  the  summer  time  on  pasture  may  be 
the  most  profitable  for  those  cattle  feeders  possessing  the  pas- 
ture, there  are  many  farms,  especially  in  the  corn-belt,  lacking 
in  pasture  and  yet  possessing  an  abundance  of  grain  and  dry 
forage  that  the  farmer  desires  to  convert  into  beef.  On  such 
farms. winter  feeding  in  the  dry-lot  is  the  common  practice.  This 
system  of  feeding  beef  cattle  is  not  without  its  advantages.  For 
example,  the  feeding  is  done  at  a  time  of  a  year  when  there 
is  little  other  work,  and  if  the  cattle  are  measurably  protected 
from  the  wind  and  rain,  they  suffer  less  from  the  weather  than 
from  the  heat  of  summer,  and  especially  if  the  flies  are  trouble- 
some. When  the  steers  are  purchased  in  the  fall  and  fattened 
during  the  winter,  the  cattle  feeder  has  his  money  tied  up 
a  much  shorter  period,  resulting  in  correspondingly  quicker 
returns.  Furthermore,  such  a  system  affords  a  very  convenient 
method  of  converting  the  previous  crop,  grain  and  dry  forage, 
into  ready  cash  to  finance  the  farm  the  coming  season,  as  the 
steers  are  marketed  and  out  of  the  way  before  farm  work  begins 
in  the  spring. 

Feeding  grain  to  cattle  in  the  dry-lot.  —  The  amount  and  kind 
of  grain  that  should  be  fed  to  fattening  cattle  in  the  dry-lot  will 
depend  much  on  the  age,  condition,  and  quality  of  the  cattle 
as  well  as  upon  the  kind  of  dry  forage.  Young  stock  will  need 
a  heavy  grain  ration  from  start  to  finish  if  they  are  to  be 
made  fat,  whereas  older  cattle  may  be  fed  grain  rather  spar- 
ingly at  first,  gradually  increasing  to  a  full  grain  feed  sixty  days 
before  marketing.     With  the  older  cattle  already  having  their 


290  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

growth,  they  have  but  to  fatten;  whereas  with  younger  cattle 
there  is  continued  growth,  and  to  fatten  them  requires  an  extra 
effort,  as  increasing  the  grain  in  the  ration.  With  steers  rather 
rough  and  coarse  in  quality  that  cannot  be  made  prime  in  any 
event,  there  is  not  the  necessity  for  the  heavy  grain  ration  re- 
quired by  steers  of  finer  quality  that  can  be  made  prime  and  thus 
command  a  premium  on  the  market.  This  heavy  grain  ration 
for  the  steers  of  finer  quality  is  likely  to  increase  the  cost  of  gains, 
making  them  even  more  expensive  than  the  lighter  grain  ration 
for  the  coarse  steers,  but  the  extra  premium  commanded  on  the 
market  will  make  the  finer  bred  steers  the  more  profitable.  The 
amount  of  grain  that  can  be  fed  economically  to  fattening  cattle 
depends  much  on  the  kind  of  dry  forage.  On  the  average 
animals  receiving  a  leguminous  forage,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa, 
or  cowpea  hay,  will  make  economical  use  of  a  larger  grain  ration 
than  when  other  forage,  such  as  timothy,  red-top,  corn  stalks, 
and  the  like,  is  fed.  In  fact,  fattening  farm  animals  will  make 
more  economical  use  of  a  larger  grain  ration  if  the  grain  also 
contains  a  high  percentage  of  protein.  The  length  of  the  fat- 
tening period  will  also  have  much  to  do  with  the  amount  of 
grain  that  should  be  fed.  If  it  is  intended  to  market  the 
steers  in  100  days  or  less,  they  will  have  to  be  full-fed  grain  from 
the  beginning  if  they  are  to  be  made  reasonably  fat,  whereas  if 
the  feeding  period  is  to  last  150  days  or  more,  the  cattle  may  be 
fed  grain  rather  sparingly  at  first. 

As  to  the 'kind  of  grain  to  feed  fattening  cattle,  this  likewise 
depends  largely  on  the  cattle  and  the  kind  of  dry  roughage. 
When  rather  young  steers  are  being  fattened,  it  is  the  com- 
mon opinion  that  a  more  nitrogenous  ration  should  be  used; 
hence  it  is  considered  the  better  plan  to  provide  much  protein 
for  the  young  animals,  whereas  in  the  case  of  older  and  more 
mature  cattle  the  grain  ration  often  contains  less  protein. 
While  this  plan  is  usually  recommended,  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  a  ration  rich  in  nitrogenous  material  has  a  tendency  to 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  291 

keep  the  young  cattle  growing  rather  than  to  fatten  them. 
While  it  is  true  that  young  stock  thus  fed  will  make  gains  more 
rapidly  and  more  cheaply,  the  cattle  will  oftentimes  lack  in  finish 
because  they  have  been  growing  rather  than  fattening.  The 
kind  of  roughage  determines,  in  part,  the  kind  of  grain  that 
should  be  fed.  When  the  cattle  are  being  fed  a  dry  roughage 
containing  much  protein,  as  clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay,  the 
grain  may  contain  a  correspondingly  less  amount  of  protein. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  the  dry  forage  lacks  the  protein,  the  de- 
ficiency should  be  made  up  by  feeding  a  grain  rich  in  protein, 
as  cotton-seed  or  linseed  meal.  In  addition,  the  length  of  the 
fattening  period  will  have  an  influence  on  the  kind  of  grain  to 
feed.  If  the  period  is  short,  it  will  be  necessary  to  feed  very 
fattening  foods,  such  as  corn  and  cotton-seed  meal,  from  the 
beginning;  whereas  if  the  cattle  are  to  be  fed  150  days  or  more, 
they  may  be  given  foods  containing  less  fat  during  the  early 
stages  of  the  feeding  period. 

BABY-BEEF 

By  baby-beef  is  meant  fat  cattle  between  one  and  two  years 
of  age  and  weighing  from  800  to  1100  pounds.  Of  recent  years 
much  has  been  written  concerning  the  advantages  of  producing 
this  class  of  beef.  A  general  perusal  of  the  recent  literature  on 
beef  production  would  lead  one  to  think  that  it  is  far  more 
profitable  to  produce  beef  from  young  animals  than  from  ani- 
mals possessing  some  age,  and  yet  the  practical  cattle  feeder  has 
continued  to  employ  two-year-old  cattle  in  his  feeding  opera- 
tions. The  experiment  literature  has  in  a  large  measure 
fostered  the  idea  that  beef  could  be  more  profitably  produced 
by  feeding  younger  cattle.  These  recommendations  are  based 
largely  on  the  fact  that  the  younger  animal  will  make  much 
more  economical  gains  than  older  animals.  There  are,  however, 
many  factors  besides  economic  gains  entering  into  profitable  beef 
production. 


292  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Cattle  used  in  baby-beef  production.  —  First  of  all,  the  cattle 
must  be  young.  They  must  be  well  bred  and  of  fine  quality, 
as  such  cattle  can  be  finished  for  the  market  at  a  much  younger 
age  than  the  plainer  kinds.  The  cattle  to  be  used  in  the  pro- 
duction of  baby-beef  should  not  be  permitted  to  lose  their  calf 
fat.  They  must  be  kept  fleshy  from  start  to  finish,  for  if  once 
they  get  run  down  in  flesh,  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  them 
prime  under  eighteen  months  of  age. 

Feeding  for  baby-beef  production.  —  If  young  animals  are  to 
be  made  fat,  they  must  be  fed  liberally  on  fat-producing  feeds, 
particularly  grain.  Heavier  grain  feeding  is  required  in  the 
production  of  baby-beef  than  of  older  beef.  Calves  and  yearlings 
have  a  tendency  to  grow  rather  than  to  fatten,  and  to  overcome 
this  they  must  be  fed  a  heavy  ration  of  grain,  a  fact  not  to 
be  lost  sight  of  in  figuring  the  cost.  In  the  beginning  the  calf 
should  be  fed  considerable  quantities  of  dry  forage,  such  as 
clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay,  as  such  foods  have  a  tendency 
to  increase  the  digestive  capacity  of  the  calf,  thereby  enabling 
it  to  handle  large  quantities  of  grain  later  on.  If  heifer  calves 
instead  of  steers  are  fed,  they  will  finish  more  quickly  and 
hence  should  *be  marketed  earlier.  The  younger  the  prime 
heifers  are  at  the  time  of  the  marketing,  the  less  discrimination 
in  price  the  butcher  will  make  between  them  and  steers.  In 
feeding  for  baby-beef,  the  most  common  mistake  is  to  market 
the  animals  before  they  are  fat  enough.  There  is  little  likeli- 
hood of  getting  them  too  fat  to  meet  the  demands  of  the 
market. 

Advantages  of  baby-beef  production.  —  The  production  of  baby- 
beef  has  two  very  distinct  and  outstanding  advantages  over  that 
of  older  beef.  First,  young  animals  require  less  food  for  a  given 
gain  than  older  animals.  Second,  the  same  capital  invested  in 
young  animals  produces  more  meat  than  in  older  animals. 
During  recent  years  these  two  advantages  have  been  much 
heralded  by  experimenters,  and  while  at  first  sight  they  may 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  293 

seem  to  be  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  beef  production,  they 
are  nevertheless  far  from  it.  While,  possibly,  each  advantage 
has  been  exaggerated,  they  are  both  certainly  true,  and  since 
there  is  an  abundance  of  experimental  data  to  prove  them, 
we  will  let  them  stand  as  unimpeachable. 

Disadvantages  of  baby-beef  production.  —  The  production  of 
baby-beef  is  not  without  its  disadvantages,  most  of  which  have 
been  lost  sight  of  because  of  the  lack  of  practical  knowledge  on 
the  part  of  its  exponents.  Chief  among  the  disadvantages  are : 
first,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  cattle  possessing  sufficient  quality 
to  make  choice  baby-beef.  Second,  the  marked  difficulty  in 
making  the  younger  animals  fat,  it  requiring  a  heavy  grain 
ration.  Third,  since  much  baby-beef  finds  its  way  to  market 
lacking  in  finish,  it  fails  to  command  a  high  price.  Fourth, 
cattle  possessing  sufficient  quality  being  scarce,  the  cost  price  of 
such  animals  is  high  and  because  they  lack  finish  on  the  market 
the  selling  price  is  low;  hence  the  margin  between  cost  and  selling 
price  is  small.  Fifth,  the  initial  weight  of  the  calf  is  small ;  hence 
in  the  production  of  baby-beef  the  cattle  feeder  cannot  depend 
for  his  profit  on  the  advance  in  value  to  the  hundredweight  on 
the  initial  weight.  From  the  foregoing  it  must  be  apparent 
that  there  are  many  questions  involved  in  the  production  of 
baby-beef,  and  that  the  profit  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  cheap- 
ness of  the  gains. 

FEEDING   CATTLE    FOR   THE   LOCAL   MARKET 

Feeding  cattle  for  the  local  meat  market  varies  greatly  from 
feeding  for  a  large  central  market.  The  agricultural  writers 
and  practically  all  of  the  experiment  literature  give  advice  on 
feeding  cattle  by  the  car-load  and  for  the  large  central  market, 
yet  according  to  the  best  figures  obtainable  nearly  one-half 
the  cattle  slaughtered  in  this  country  are  slaughtered  by  local 
butchers. 

The  local  butcher  in  small  places  cannot  charge  enough  for 


294 


MANUAL   OF  FABM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  92.  —  A  Steer  that  made  ex- 
ceedingly Large  Gains  for  a  Six 
Months'  Feeding  Period. 


meat  to  warrant  his  paying  a  high  price  for  the  cattle  he  kills; 
hence  he  usually  purchases  plain  butcher  cattle.     As  a  rule, 

the  local  slaughter  houses  are 
not  equipped  to  handle  heavy 
cattle;  the  cuts  of  meat  are 
usually  retailed  in  small 
amounts;  therefore,  the  local 
butcher  demands  a  rather 
small  animal,  weighing  from 
600  to  1000  pounds.  The 
local  butcher  cannot  pay  for 
high  finish.  Thick  fat  cattle 
carry  too  much  waste.  Grass- 
fat  cattle  can  be  made  to 
carry  sufficient  flesh  for  the  local  butcher.  While  no  con- 
sumer, rich  or  poor,  wishes  to  pay  for  waste  fat,  yet  highest 
quality  of  beef  is  impossible  without  considerable  quantities 
of  such  waste.  There  is,  however,  no  demand  in  the  local 
market  for  beef  carrying  waste  fat,  no  matter  how  excellent  its 
quality. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  apparent  that  the  cattle  feeder  who 
plans  to  feed  cattle  for  the  local  market  and  make  a  profit  should 
procure  heifers,  young  cows,  or  low-grade  steers  as  his  feeding 
stock,  since  such  cattle  can  be  purchased  at  a  low  price.  These 
cattle  must  be  fattened  as  economically  as  possible,  largely  on 
dry  forage  or  on  pasture,  and  then  sold  before  they  become  too 
fat  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  local  market.  This  class  of 
butcher  cattle  can  be  very  profitably  produced  on  farms  lying 
east,  south,  and  west  of  the  corn-belt.  Perhaps  the  greatest 
handicap  to  profitable  beef  production  in  these  regions  is  lack  of 
suitable  pasture  land.  That  much  of  the  land  in  these  regions 
can  be  made  to  grow  pastures  suitable  for  the  profitable 
production  of  this  grade  of  beef  no  longer  admits  of  doubt 
(page  286). 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  295 

HOGS    FOLLOWING    GRAIN-FED    CATTLE 

Among  grain-fed  cattle,  hogs  are  considered  indispensable  to 
profitable  beef  production.  Cattle  receiving  a  rather  heavy 
grain  ration  fail  to  digest  the  grain  completely,  and  hogs,  if 
given  a  chance,  will  pick  up  this  grain  and  convert  it  into  pork. 
So  great  is  the  saving  thus  effected  that  beef  production  is  sel- 
dom profitable  without  the  hog.  The  principal  questions  in 
connection  with  hogs  following  grain-fed  cattle  are :  the  kind 
of  hogs  to  use,  the  number  of  hogs  to  a  steer,  the  advisability 
of  feeding  the  hogs  grain  in  addition  to  what  they  get  from  the 
droppings,  and  the  gains  that  the  hogs  may  be  expected  to 
make. 

The  most  satisfactory  hog  to  follow  grain-fed  cattle  is  one 
weighing  approximately  100  pounds  and  thin  in  flesh.  If  the 
hogs  are  too  heavy  or  too  fat,  they  do  not  make  good  rustlers, 
and  will  fail  to  find  all  the  droppings,  especially  in  pasture. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  good  practice  to  use  pigs  too  young 
because  of  the  danger  of  injury  from  the  cattle.  Brood  sows 
are  oftentimes  used  to  follow  cattle.  They  are  not  likely  to 
be  good  rustlers,  however,  and  will  fail  to  find  many  of  the 
droppings,  especially  if  heavy  with  pig. 

The  advisability  of  feeding  grain  in  addition  to  that  ob- 
tained from  the  droppings  will  depend  much  on  the  conditions. 
If  the  price  of  cattle  is  high  and  that  of  hogs  low,  one  would 
prefer  to  allow  the  hogs  only  what  they  gather  from  the  drop- 
pings; whereas  if  the  price  of  hogs  is  high  and  cattle  low, 
then  it  would  no  doubt  be  more  profitable  to  feed  the  hogs 
in  addition,  especially  since  hogs  are  more  economical  feeders 
than  cattle.  The  great  majority  of  cattle  feeders  use  grain  in 
addition  to  that  secured  from  the  droppings. 

The  number  of  hogs  to  follow  each  steer  will  depend  on  two 
conditions  :  the  form  in  which  the  grain  is  fed,  whole  or  ground;  ■ 
and  whether  extra  grain  is  fed  in  addition  to  that  obtained 


296  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

from  the  droppings.  When  grain  is  fed  extra,  the  number  of 
hogs  to  each  steer  will  depend  on  the  amount  of  grain  thus  fed. 
The  common  practice  is  to  put  a  100-pound  hog  behind  each 
steer  and  feed  grain  in  addition.  If,  however,  grain  is  not  fed 
in  addition,  one  hog  to  two  steers  will  be  sufficient  to  pick  up 
the  grain  of  the  droppings  when  the  grain  is  fed  to  the  steer  in 
the  whole  form,  and  one  pig  to  four  steers  when  the  grain  is  fed  in 
the  form  of  meal.  There  is  much  less  available  material  for  the 
hogs  when  the  grain  is  fed  in  the  form  of  meal  than  when  fed 
as  shelled  or  ear  corn. 

The  gains  that  may  be  expected  from  hogs  following  steers 
will  depend  on  the  method.  When  meal  is  fed,  the  gains  will 
be  less  than  when  the  grain  is  fed  whole;  and  when  grain  in 
addition  is  fed,  the  gains  will  depend  entirely  on  the  amount 
of  grain  that  is  fed  to  the  hogs.  When  one  100-pound  hog  is 
placed  behind  each  steer  and  grain  fed  in  addition,  as  is  the 
common  practice,  the  cattle  feeder  expects  to  secure  at  least 
one  pound  gain  on  each  hog  daily  for  a  period  of  100  days.  By 
this  time  the  hogs  are  weighing  over  200  pounds  and  are  too 
heavy  to  make  good  rustlers,  so  they  are  withdrawn  from  the 
feed  lots  and  another  drove  of  100-pound  hogs  placed  with 
the  cattle.  The  200-pound  hogs  may  be  marketed  at  once  or 
fed  extra  grain  for  two  weeks,  by  which  time  they  average 
better  than  225  pounds  each  when  they  are  put  on  the  market. 

GETTING    CATTLE    "oN   FEED" 

There  is  no  more  important  question  connected  with  cattle 
feeding  than  that  of  getting  the  cattle  on  a  full  feed  of  grain, 
meaning  by  full  feed  all  the  grain  they  will  consume.  Opin- 
ion differs  widely  as  to  the  time  that  should  be  required,  some 
very  successful  cattle  feeders  employing  the  so-called  short 
method,  that  is,  getting  the  cattle  on  full  feed  in  one  to  two 
weeks,  whereas  others  equally  as  successful  employ  the  long 
method,  taking  one  to  two  months.     Which  of  these  methods 


FEEDING   BEEF  CATTLE  297 

one  should  choose  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  length  of  the 
feeding  period  and  the  amount  of  grain  that  the  cattle  feeder 
plans  to  feed. 

LENGTH   OF   FEEDING   PERIOD 

The  length  of  the  cattle  feeding  period  is  extremely  variable, 
ranging  from  ninety  days  to  fifteen  months.  Either  of  these  ex- 
tremes or  any  intervening  time  may  be  profitable  under  certain 
conditions.  There  are  several  factors  affecting  the  length  of 
the  feeding  period,  chief  of  which  are  the  kinds  of  foods,  the 
quality  and  condition  of  the  cattle,  and  the  age  of  the  cattle.  If 
the  cattle  feeder  wishes  to  feed  a  relatively  large  proportion  of 
dry  forage  and  a  small  amount  of  grain,  the  fattening  process 
will  be  slow  and  the  feeding  period  prolonged;  whereas  if  he 
wishes  to  feed  a  maximum  amount  of  grain  and  a  correspondingly 
small  amount  of  dry  forage,  the  fattening  process  will  be  acceler- 
ated and  the  period  shortened.  If  the  steers  are  rough  and  of 
such  poor  quality  that  they  cannot  be  made  prime,  the  feeding 
period  may  be  of  shorter  duration  than  if  the  steers  are  of  finer 
breeding,  and  of  good  quality;  the  extra  finish  requires  much 
time,  but  it  is  considered  profitable  because  of  the  premium 
commanded  in  the  market.  Furthermore,  the  age  of  the  cattle 
affects  the  length  of  the  feeding  period,  as  in  common  practice 
it  requires  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  days  to  finish 
mature  cattle  and  approximately  fifteen  months  to  finish 
calves,  with  intervening  ages  ranging  between  these  extremes. 

MARKETABLE    CONDITION 

The  cattle  feeder  is  often  at  a  loss  to  know  just  when  to  mar- 
ket his  cattle.  The  problem  is  complicated  all  the  more  by  the 
fact  that  the  finishing  process  is  a  very  expensive  one,  and  yet 
this  extra  finish  is  what  commands  the  premium  of  the  market. 
The  butcher  at  the  large  central  market  demands  excessive  fat- 
ness, and  for  it  he  is  willing  to  pay  an  extra  price,  whereas  the  i 


20S 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


local  butcher  fails  to  appreciate  such  finish  and  may  even 
discriminate  against  it,  saying  that  his  patrons  will  object  to  the 
waste  fat.  Much  depends  on  the  market  also ;  if  there  is  a  light 
demand  and  a  heavy  run  of  extra  fat  cattle,  the  butchers  will 


Fig.  93.  —  Aberdeen  Angus  Bull.     Owned  by  J.  S.  Goodwin,  Naperville,  111. 

The  Aberdeen  Angus  breed  of  beef  cattle  developed  in  northeastern  Scotland. 
Like  the  Hereford,  Angus  mature  early,  but  lack  the  size  of  the  Shorthorn, 
cows  weighing  around  1400  pounds,  bulls  2000,  and  finished  steers  1000  to 
1400  pounds.  The  steers  are  unexceled  for  fattening  in  the  feed  lot  and  are 
held  in  high  esteem  by  the  butchers,  although  if  made  too  large  they  are  likely  to 
become  coarse.     They  are  all  black  and  hornless. 


take  advantage  and  bid  down  the  price,  whereas  if  there  is  a  light 
run  and  a  heavy  demand  for  cattle  showing  much  finish,  the 
butchers  will  bid  up  the  price  accordingly.  Therefore,  the  ques- 
tion as  to  when  the  cattle  are  ready  for  the  market  cannot  be 
answered  without  a  knowledge  of,  first,  the  age  of  the  cattle ; 


FEEDING   BEEF  CATTLE  299 

second,  the  quality  of  the  cattle;  third,  the  relative  cost  of  put- 
ting cattle  in  prime  condition  compared  with  the  cost  of  merely 
"  warming  them  up";  and  fourth,  a  knowledge  of  the  condition 
of  the  market. 

The  more  prominent  indications  of  a  finished  steer  are  fullness 
at  base  of  tongue,  a  roll  of  fat  in  front  of  the  point  of  the 
shoulder,  a  full  thick  flank  that  stands  out  as  the  animal  walks, 
a  large  mellow  cod,  a  full  twist,  and  fullness  at  the  tail-head. 

When  to  market  cattle.  —  As  to  where  and  when  to  buy  feeders, 
no  definite  statement  can  be  made.  The  demand  for  'extra  prime 
beef,  such  as  is  used  by  the  high-grade  hotels  and  restaurants, 
is  fairly  good  every  month.  There  is  an  extra  demand  for 
such  beef  during  the  Christmas  season,  beginning  about  Novem- 
ber 20  when  the  Christmas  order  for  export  beef  begins  to  come 
and  continuing  to  about  •the  middle  of  December.  There  is 
good  demand  for  prime  baby-beef  the  year  round,  with  an 
extra  call  during  the  Christmas  season.  Export  cattle  are  in 
greatest  demand  in  the  winter  and  spring  months;  Canada 
supplies  the  demand  in  the  late  summer  and  fall.  Common 
cattle  are  in  greatest  demand  in  the  spring  months,  as  after  the 
first  of  July  they  come  into  competition  with  the  cheap  western 
range  cattle. 

SHIPPING    CATTLE 

There  are  some  precautions  that  should  be  taken  in  getting 
cattle  ready  for  shipment.  The  object  sought  is  to  ship  the  cat- 
tle with  as  little  " drift"  or  loss  in  weight  as  possible.  While 
there  are  those  who  manage  the  cattle  in  such  a  way  as  to  induce 
them  to  drink  an  unusual  amount  of  water  when  they  reach  the 
market,  thus  securing  an  abnormal  fill,  such  practice  is  far  from 
commendable.  Cattle  buyers  are  always  on  the  lookout  for  such 
cattle  and  discriminate  heavily  against  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  perfectly  legitimate  for  the  cattle  feeder  to  take  such 
precautions  as  will  insure  his  animals  against  the  likelihood  of 
scouring  and  to  prevent  abnormal  shrinking  in  weight. 


300  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Preparing  cattle  for  shipment.  —  Since  there  are  certain  foods 
that  have  a  tendency  towards  loosening  the  bowels,  such  should 
be  withheld  for  at  least  24  hours  before  shipment.  Chief  among 
the  foods  likely  to  scour  cattle  are  shelled  corn,  corn  meal,  oil 
meal,  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpea  hay,  and  green  grass.  In  fact,  a  full 
grain  ration  of  any  kind  is  likely  to  loosen  the  bowels.  There- 
fore, for  24  hours  before  shipment  the  cattle  should  be  shut  up 
in  a  dry  lot,  fed  grain  sparingly,  but  may  have  all  the  timothy 
hay  they  like.  Oats  make  a  very  good  grain  to  feed  at  this 
time.     Water  should  be  withheld  four  hours  before  shipment. 

The  car  in  which  the  cattle  are  to  be  shipped  should  be  well 
bedded  with  straw.  If  in  addition  to  these  precautions  it  is 
not  overloaded,  the  cattle  should  arrive  at  the  market  fresh  and 
clean.  Cattle  thus  treated  will  make  a  normal  fill.  Several  car 
loads  of  cattle  thus  treated  have  been  shipped  a  36  to  40  hour 
journey  without  unloading  on  only  a  3  per  cent  drift  or  loss. 

Drifting  cattle  for  the  local  market.  —  When  the  fat  cattle  are 
sold  on  the  local  market  instead  of  shipping,  it  is  customary  in 
some  localities  to  sell  them  on  a  3  per  cent  drift,  taking  the 
weight  at  the  farm.  From  the  fact  that  cattle  can  be  shipped 
40  hours  on  a  3  per  cent  drift,  this  would  seem  to  be  the  maxi- 
mum that  should  be  allowed  the  local  buyer,  and  this  should  be 
on  weights  taken  at  the  farm  where  the  animals  are  fed. 

SAMPLE    RATIONS    FOR   FATTENING    CATTLE 

The  following  rations  are  collected  from  various  sources  and 
furnish  a  guide  in  determining  the  kind  and  quantity  of  feed 
that  should  be  allowed  fattening  cattle.  They  apply  to  1000 
pounds  live  weight :  — 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 


301 


Age  and 

Ration 

Food  per  Pound 
Gain 

of  Cattle 

Grain 

Dry  Forage 

Grain 

Dry 

Forage 

Calves 
457  lb. 

22  lb.  shelled  corn 
3   lb.   cotton-seed 
meal 

12  lb.  clover  hay 

5.9 

2.9 

Calves 
534  lb. 

18  lb.  shelled  corn 
2.5  lb.  cotton-seed 
meal 

5  lb.  clover  hay 
18  lb.  corn  silage 

5.8 

1.4  * 

5.3 2 

Calves 
508  lb. 

18  lb.  shelled  corn 
3   lb.    cotton-seed 
meal 

4.5  lb.  clover  hay 
19  lb.  corn  silage 

5.3 

1.1 l 

4.8 2 

Yearlings 
685  lb. 

21  lb.  shelled  corn 
3.5  lb.  cotton-seed 
meal 

11  lb.  clover  hay 

7.3 

3.2 

Yearlings 
854  lb. 

19  lb.  shelled  corn 
2.5  lb.  cotton-seed 
meal 

4.5  lb.  clover  hay 
18  lb.  corn  silage 

7.9 

1.7 » 

6.8 2 

Yearlings 
799  lb. 

17.5  lb.  shelled  corn 
2.5  lb.   linseed-oil 
meal 

11  lb.  prairie  hay 

8.1 

4.6 

Yearlings 
808  lb. 

19  lb.  shelled  corn 

11  lb.  alfalfa  hay 

7.7 

4.7 

Yearlings 

777  lb. 

17.5  lb.  shelled  corn 
2.5  lb.  linseed-oil 
meal 

15  lb.  cornstalks 

8.0 

5.7 

Yearlings 

788  lb. 

17.5  lb.  shelled  corn 
2.5  lb.  linseed-oil 
meal 

15  lb.  sorghum 

8.7 

6.4 

1  Clover  hay. 


2  Corn  silage. 


302 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Age  and 

Ration 

Food  per 
Pound  Gain 

Cattle 

Grain 

Dry  Forage 

Grain 

Dry 

Forage 

Two-year-olds 
966  lb. 

18  lb.  shelled  corn 
3.2  lb.  cotton-seed 
meal 

9.5  lb.  clover  hay 

8.9 

4.1 

Two-year-olds 
1010  lb. 

16  lb.  shelled  corn 
3   lb.   cotton-seed 
meal 

4  lb.  clover  hay 
15  lb.  corn  silage 

7.6 

1.5" 

5.82 

Two-year-olds 
975  lb. 

10  lb.  snapped  corn 

18  lb.  prairie  hay 

7.4 

15.2 

Two-year-olds 
979  lb. 

10  lb.  snapped  corn 

12  lb.  prairie  hay 
10  lb.  alfalfa  hay 

4.7 

10.5 

Two-year-olds 
977  lb. 

10  lb.  snapped  corn 

22  lb.  alfalfa  hay 

4.6 

10.7 

Two-year-olds 
893  lb. 

20  lb.  ear  corn 

10  lb.  clover  hay 

9.5 

4.0 

Two-year-olds 
896  lb. 

21  lb.  ear  corn 
2  lb.  linseed  meal 

5   lb.    shredded 

stalks 
3  lb.  oat  straw 

10.5 

3.9 

Two-year-olds 
1017  lb. 

18  lb.  shelled  corn 

7  lb.  timothy  hay 

9.3 

3.4 

Two-year-olds 
1054  lb. 

16  lb.  shelled  corn 
5.4  lb.  cotton-seed 
meal 

8.8  lb.  timothy  hay 

10.0 

3.9 

Clover  hay. 


2  Corn  silage. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 


303 


Age  and 

Weight  of 

Cattle 

Ration 

Food  per 
Pound  Gain 

Grain 

Dry  Forage 

Grain 

Dry 

Forage 

Yearlings 

774  lb. 

i4  lb.  shelled  corn 
3.1  lb.  gluten  feed 

Pasture 

7.9 

Yearlings 
723  lb. 

14  lb.  shelled  corn 
3.5  lb.  linseed  meal 

Pasture 

7.0 

Yearlings 
734  lb. 

14  lb.  shelled  corn 
3.5  lb.  cotton-seed 
meal 

Pasture 

7.5 

Yearlings 
730  lb. 

16  lb.  shelled  corn 

Pasture 

7.2 

Two-year-olds 
859  lb. 

11  lb.  shelled  corn 
2.8  lb.  cotton-seed 

meal 
2.8  lb.  wheat  bran 

Pasture 

7.8 

Two-year-olds 
940  lb. 

16  lb.  shelled  corn 
2.5  lb.  gluten  feed 

Pasture 

8.7 

Two-year-olds 
933  lb. 

16  lb.  shelled  corn 
2.5  lb.  linseed  meal 

Pasture 

8.3 

Three-year- 
olds 
1269  lb. 

12  lb.  shelled  corn 

2   lb.   cotton-seed 
meal 

Pasture 

9.6 

Three-year- 
olds 
1251  lb. 

14  lb.  shelled  corn 

Pasture 

10.1 

304 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Sample  rations  for  wintering  cattle  with  no  attempt  to  fatten  them 


Weight  of 

Ration  for 

Each  Steer 

Gain  per 

Cattle 

Grain 

Dry  Forage 

Day 

lb. 

736  lb. 

none 

16  lb.  timothy  hay 

0.4 

707  lb. 

none 

20  lb.  whole  cornstalks 

0.2 

667  lb. 

none 

15   lb.   shredded   corn- 
stalks 

-0.1 

743  lb. 

none 

44  lb.  corn  silage 

1.0 

771  lb. 

none 

10  lb.  cornstalks 
10  lb.  clover  hay 

.     0.7 

788  lb. 

none 

20  lb.  cowpea  hay 

0.5 

765  lb. 

4  lb.  shelled  corn 

16  lb.  timothy  hay 

0.6 

767  lb. 

4  lb.  shelled  corn 

9  lb.  cornstalks 
9  lb.  clover  hay 

0.9 

783  lb. 

4  lb.  shelled  corn 

19  lb.  cowpea  hay 

1.5 

i 

6  lb.  shelled  corn 

17  lb.  timothy  hay 

1.4 

6  lb.  shelled  corn 

19  lb.  clover  hay 

1.9 

6  lb.  shelled  corn 

17  lb.  alfalfa  hay 

1.6 

6  lb.  shelled  corn 

17  lb.  cowpea  hay 

1.3 

6  lb.  shelled  corn 

9  lb.  cornstalks 
9  lb.  clover  hay 

1.6 

6  lb.  shelled  corn 

8  lb.  wheat  straw 
8  lb.  clover  hay 

1.3 

1  Weight  approximately  as  above. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

BREEDING   BEEF  CATTLE 

The  breeding  of  cattle  for  the  production  of  beef  should  re- 
ceive more  attention  from  the  general  farmer  than  is  being  ac- 
corded it  at  the  present  time.  During  the  past  decade  the  breed- 
ing of  beef  cattle  on  the  common  farms  has  been  on  the  decline, 
especially  in  the  north  and  central  part  of  the  country.  For- 
merly, in  traveling  over  this  section,  it  was  not  an  uncommon 
sight  to  see  large  herds  of  well-bred  beef  cattle  grazing,  often 
On  permanent  pasture,  while  at  present  such  a  herd  is  so  un- 
common as  to  elicit  much  comment.  As  has  been  pointed 
out  in  the  discussion  on  purchasing  feeding  cattle,  the  reasons 
for  this  decline  in  beef  breeding  are  many,  the  chief  one  being 
that  there  is  more  money  to  be  made  in  other  branches  of 
farming.  Along  with  this  decline  in  breeding  there  has  been 
an  increase  in  consumption,  until  the  problem  of  supplying  the 
demand  for  beef  has  taken  on  a  serious  aspect.  The  remedy 
for  this  is  only  to  breed  more  and  better  beef-producing  animals. 
No  doubt  other  branches  of  farming  are  more  profitable  for 
that  section  of  the  country  lying  west  of  the  Sciota,  north  of  the 
Ohio,  and  east  of  the  Missouri  rivers,  yet  such  may  not  be  true 
of  the  immediate  surrounding  territory.  In  this  outlying  ter- 
ritory there  is  land  not  well  suited  to  growing  grain  that  with 
proper  management  can  be  turned  to  the  profitable  production 
of  beef  cattle  (pages  276,  290). 

The  chief  defect  of  the  common  cattle  is  their  lack  of  quality 
and  uniformity.  This  is  due  both  to  the  lack  of  good  blood  and 
x  305 


306  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

to  the  indiscriminate  admixture  of  the  blood  of  the  several  breeds 
of  both  beef  and  dairy  types.  Proof  of  this  is  not  wanting.  In 
traveling  about  the  country  one  notes  a  great  variation  in  the 
type,  form,  and  especially  the  color  of  the  animals  in  each  herd. 
In  many  small  herds  one  often  sees  red,  white,  black,  brindle, 
and  all  conceivable  combinations  of  these  colors,  as  well  as  in- 


Fig.  94.  —  Hereford  Cow.     First  prize  winner,  International  Live  Stock  Show. 

The  Hereford  beef  cattle  originated  in  the  county  from  which  they  take  their 
name  in  England.  In  size  this  breed  is  a  close  second  to  the  Shorthorn. 
Herefords  are  noted  for  their  early  maturing  qualities  and  for  their  good 
grazing  qualities  ;  on  the  ranges  they  are  often  preferred  to  the  Shorthorn. 
This  breed  lacks  the  full  quarters  of  the  Shorthorn.     The  color  is  red,  with 

white  markings.     Herefords  are  often  called  "White  Faces." 

% 

dividual  animals  that  conform  in  a  measure  to  the  strictly  beef 
form,  others  of  the  dairy  form,  with  all  gradations  between  the 
two.  There  is  lack  of  uniformity  in  all  respects.  Before  any 
community  can  improve  its  cattle,  it  must  decide  upon  a  plan, 
and  each  person  must  proceed  largely  along  the  lines  of  this 
well  developed  idea. 


BREEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  307 

PLAN    OF    BREEDING 

Before  deciding  upon  a  plan  of  breeding  beef  cattle  one  should 
make  a  careful  study  of  his  conditions ;  he  should  visit  farms 
where  beef  cattle  are  successfully  bred,  noting  conditions  and 
comparing  with  his  own.  Such  improvement  as  he  may  be  able 
to  bring  about  must  be  upon  the  common  native  cattle  of  the 
community.  To  dispose  of  the  native  cattle  and  purchase  well- 
bred  uniform  cattle  would  be  very  expensive  and  in  most 
cases  very  unprofitable.  The  task  is  then  to  adopt  some  plan 
of  breeding  that  will  result  in  an  improvement  of  the  native 
stock.  In  most  cases  this  can  be  most  profitably  accomplished 
by  the  grading-up  process;  that  is,  by  the  use  of  pure-bred 
bulls  on   the  native   common  females. 

Cooperative  grading-up.  —  A  very  successful  plan  to  improve 
the  beef-producing  qualities  of  the  cattle  of  a  locality  is  by  the 
cooperative  grading-up  method.  The  formation  of  beef-breed- 
ing associations  throughout  a  given  locality  would  do  much  to 
advance  the  progress  of  the  industry.  Each  association  should 
have  for  its  object  the  production  and  improvement  of  high- 
grade  and  pure-bred  beef  cattle,  and  should  be  formed  of  breed- 
ers who  possess  the  same  class  or  breed  of  cattle.  It  would  be 
the  duty  of  such  an  association  to  protect  the  interest  of  its  mem- 
bers, provide  suitable  bulls  each  year  for  use  on  the  cows  owned 
by  the  members,  advertise  stock,  attract  buyers,  hold  sales,  call 
meetings  for  the  discussion  of  beef  breeding  and  feeding  matters, 
and  to  educate  the  farmers  of  the  locality  to  better  methods  of 
caring  for  live-stock. 

Raise  heifer  calves  from  best  cows.  —  Because  of  the  excellency 
of  the  heifer  calves  from  the  good  cows,  the  cattle  feeder  is 
tempted  to  fatten  them  for  beef.  This  should  not  be  done. 
They  should  be  reserved  for  breeding  purposes.  Many  cattle 
breeders  are  actually  reducing  the  quality  of  their  beef -produc- 
ing herd  by  fattening  the  best  calves  and  reserving  the  poorer 
ones  for  breeding  because  they  will  not  make  good  feeders. 


308  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


SELECTION    OF   BREEDING    STOCK 

The  best  cattle  should  be  retained  and  propagated  and  the 
poorer  animals  discarded.  In  a  very  few  generations,  by  em- 
ploying such  a  method,  the  common  cattle  of  the  country 
could  be  greatly  improved.  It  is  the  application  of  haphazard 
methods  that  has  resulted  in  the  lack  of  character  that  exists 
among  our  common  native  cattle. 

The  breed.  —  Choose  the  breed  that  best  suits  the  conditions, 
the  markets,  and  the  fancy  of  the  breeders.  There  is  no  best 
breed  of  beef  cattle  for  all  conditions.     There  is  much  variation 

in  the  temperament,  size,  and 
quality  of  product  among  the 
leading  beef  breeds.  Whether 
Shorthorns,  Herefords,  Angus,  or 
Galloways  should  be  chosen  de- 
pends on  the  attendant  condi- 
tions and  the  personal  preference 
among  the  breeders  and  feeders. 
The   Shorthorns   have  excellent 

Fig.  95.  —  Champion  Hereford  hind-quarters  and  nick  Well  with 
Bull  "Dale"  Photograph  from  the  common  cattle  as  well  as 
National  Stockman  and  Farmer. 

other  beef  breeds.  The  Here- 
fords mature  early  and  are  excellent  grazers.  The  Angus  ma- 
ture fairly  early,  produce  a  high  quality  of  beef,  and  are  much 
sought  on  the  markets.  They  are  hornless  though  rather 
nervous.  The  Galloways  produce  high  quality  beef,  are 
hornless,  and  often  possess  good  coats  of  hair;  the  hides  are 
much  sought  for  tanning,  and  are  used  in  manufacturing 
coats,  robes,  and  the  like.  The  breed  itself  is  never  so 
important  as  is  the  individuality  and  the  uniformity. 

Crossing.  —  For  the  propagation  of  animals  intended  solely  for 
beef  many  experienced  cattle  breeders  and  feeders  prefer  a  Short- 
horn-Hereford cross,  contending  that  the  cross-bred  steer  in- 


BREEDING   BEEF  CATTLE  309 

herits  the  good  grazing  and  early  maturing  qualities  of  the  Here- 
ford and  the  desirable  hind-quarters  of  the  Shorthorn.  But  it 
must  be  understood  that  this  cross-bred  offspring  should  not 
be  used  for  breeding,  no  matter  how  excellent  an  individual, 
for  the  second  generation  is  very  likety  to  inherit  the  poor 
qualities  or  other  qualities  of  both  ancestors. 

The  dual-purpose  cow.  —  By  dual-purpose  cow  is  meant  one 
capable  of  yielding  a  good  flow  of  milk,  and  in  which  the  offspring 
will  make  a  fair  quality  of  beef  as  will  the  cow  when  dried  off. 
This  is  the  so-called  " farmer's  cow,"  concerning  the  profitable- 
ness of  which  there  is  much  discussion.  Because  of  the  high 
price  of  land  over  much  of  the  grain  belt,  it  is  no  longer  profit- 
able to  keep  a  cow  merely  for  the  calf  she  raises.  This  has  led 
to  the  opinion  that  it  is  possible  to  develop  a  strain  of  dual-  or 
double-purpose  cattle,  one  that  while  raising  a  calf  that  would 
make  a  fair  quality  of  beef  would  also  yield  milk  sufficient  to  pay 
for  her  keep. 

The  demand  for  such  double-purpose  animals  has  led  a  few 
of  the  breeders,  of  at  least  three  of  the  established  breeds,  Short- 
horn, Red  Polled,  and  Devon,  to  endeavor  to  breed  such  animals. 
In  the  breeding  of  such  cattle  there  are  two  very  pertinent  ques- 
tions to  be  considered :  First,  the  amount  of  milk  or  butter-fat 
that  should  be  expected;  and  second,  the  degree  of  excellency 
in  beef  production  that  should  be  sought  among  the  offspring. 
These  questions  assume  much  importance,  for,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  the  type  suited  to  the  production  of  milk  is  ill  adapted  to 
the  production  of  beef,  and  the  type  that  takes  on  beef  economi- 
cally is  not  likely  to  make  good  milkers.  Dual-purpose  cattle 
breeders  vary  widely  in  their  opinion  as  to  the  amount  of  milk 
and  fat  that  should  be  expected  as  well  as  the  excellency  sought 
in  the  calves.  While  the  flow  and  fat  required  to  make  a  profit 
will  vary  according  to  conditions,  yet  if  one  can  secure  5000  to 
7000  pounds,  yielding  200  to  250  pounds  of  butter-fat  yearly, 
and  a  calf  of  sufficient  quality  to  reach  a  weight  of  350  pounds 


310  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

by  the  time  it  is  6  months  of  age,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in 
realizing  a  handsome  profit,  providing,  of  course,  that  the  prod- 
ucts are  marketed  to  advantage  (Fig.  96). 

Instead  of  procuring  dual-purpose  strains  of  cattle,  some 
persons  suggest  breeding  the  dairy  cows  to  a  beef  bull,  thus 
producing  a  half-blood  beef   animal.      They  recommend   the 

following  plan :  Since  a  good 
cow,  properly  cared  for,  may  be 
profitably  milked  for  a  period  of 
six  to  eight  years,  during  which 
time  she  is  likely  to  produce 
three  or  four  heifer  calves,  only 
one-third  to  one-fourth  of  the 
cows  need  be  bred  to  a  dairy 
bull;  or  the  breeding  of  the 
_  ~       entire  herd  to  a  dairv  bull  once 

Fig.    96.  —  The     Shorthorn    Cow 

"Rose  of  Glenside."  The  dairy  in   three  or  four  years  is  suffi- 
type       From    March,    1909,   to  cjent  to  maintain  the  dairy  herd. 

March,     1910,     she     gave     18,072  *; 

pounds   of  milk    containing    625  All  other  calves  are  available  for 
pounds  of  fat.    Owned  by  May  &  beef  production  and  should  be 

Otis,    Granville    Center,    Pa.     Ex-  ,  .  .        « .     ..        n      i  i 

ample  of  a  dual-purpose  cow.  sired  by  a  beef  bull.     Such  a  plan 

is  likely  to  encounter  practical 
difficulties  that  would  render  its  serviceability  doubtful.  It 
would  no  doubt  result  in  the  production  of  calves  of  little  value 
to  maintain  a  dairy  herd  and  with  doubtful  value  as  feeding 
cattle.  It  would  also  be  extremely  hazardous  to  attempt  to 
maintain  a  dairy  herd  with  only  one-fourth  to  one-third  of 
the  calves  to  select  from. 

Uniformity.  —Lack  of  uniformity  is  one  of  the  greatest  faults 
connected  with  breeding  common  cattle.  As  it  is  now,  each 
locality  is  producing  cattle  of  a  number  of  types  and  breeds. 
Such  cattle'  are  not  desirable  feeding  animals,  as  they  will 
not  finish  or  fatten  evenly  and  must  be  sent  to  market 
lacking  in  uniformity  in  type,  color,  weight,  quality,  and  con- 


BREEDING   BEEF  CATTLE  311 

ditions.  Mixed  droves  of  cattle  of  this  kind  are  not  desired 
on  any  market,  and  hence  are  discriminated  against  and 
must  sell  for  an  exceedingly  low  price.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
each  farmer  in  the  locality  would  conform  with  the  majority 
of  his  neighbors  and  cooperate  in  propagating  the  same  breed, 
even  though  this  breed  may  not  be  the  one  that  suits  his  fancy 
best  or  even  the  one  that  is  best  suited  to  the  district,  until 
the  community  became  noted  for  the  production  of  such  a 
breed,  then  a  cattle  feeder  in  search  of  any  particular  type 
should  be  able  to  go  to  the  district  noted  for  the  production  of 
the  breed  required  and  there  find  cattle  in  sufficient  numbers 
to  meet  all  needs. 

THE    BEEF   BULL 

To  the  bull  we  must  look  for  the  improvement  of  the 
common  cattle.  To  secure  the  improvement  in  a  herd  of 
cattle  through  the  females  would  require  the  use  of  forty 
or  more  superior  cows  to  accomplish  the  same  results  as 
might  be  secured  by  the  use  of  a  single  bull,  and  even  then 
there  would  be  less  uniformity  in  the  offspring.  This  is  be- 
cause the  bull  controls  one-half  the  characters  of  the  entire 
crop  of  calves.  This  has  led  to  the  assertion  that  "the  bull 
is  half  the  herd."  This  assertion  is  misleading  in  a  way,  for 
when  it  comes  to  herd  improvement,  he  is  even  more  than 
one-half  the   herd. 

The  cost  of  a  bull.  —  Among  dairymen  who  keep  a  record  of 
the  production  of  their  cows,  there  is  a  fair  knowledge  of  the 
value  of  a  good  bull,  while  those  who  breed  feeding  cattle  seem 
to  lack  such  information,  or  at  least  ignore  it  entirely.  From 
this  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  one  should  pay  a  fancy  price 
for  a  beef  bull.  Many  general  farmers  are  depending  on 
practically  worthless  grade  and  scrub  bulls  to  head  the  herds 
of  grade  cows.  Properly  cared  for,  a  bull  should  sire  forty 
calves  in  a  season.      Suppose   the  bull  is  of  sufficient  quality 


312 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


to  increase  the  value  of  each  calf  $5,  a  very  conservative 
estimate,  then  he  makes  $200  with  his  first  crop  of  calves. 
One-half  of  this  sum  will  bring  a  very  desirable  bull  of  any  of 
the  leading  beef  breeds  into  any  locality.  Such  a  bull  in- 
troduced into  a  locality  can  be  made  to  pay  for  himself  the 


Fig.  97.  —  Gall.oway  Bull.     First  prize,  Illinois  State  Fair.     Owned  by  C.  S. 

Hechtner,  Clariton,  la. 

The  Galloway  breed  of  beef  cattle  originated  in  southwestern  Scotland,  adjacent 
to  the  sea,  where  the  breed  developed  much  hardiness.  Though  neither  so 
early  maturing  nor  so  large  as  the  Angus,  the  flesh  is  of  good  quality.  This 
breed  is  particularly  noted  for  its  fine  coat  of  hair,  which  seems  to  be  com- 
posed of  two  parte,  a  very  fine,  short  under  growth  and  a  long,  wavy  outer 
growth.  The  hides  are  often  used  to  manufacture  coats,  robes,  and  the  like. 
All  animals  are  black  and  hornless. 


first  year.  When  once  a  desirable  bull  is  procured,  he  should 
be  retained  as  long  as  he  remains  a  true  breeder.  Bulls 
possessing  some  age  are  likely  to  be  difficult  to  control,  and 
many  an  excellent  sire  has  been  sold  for  beef  simply  because 
the  owner  was  afraid  he  would  injure  some  one. 


BREEDING   BEEF  CATTLE  313 


THE    BEEF    COW 


While  all  common  cows  must  be  bred  in  order  that  they 
may  freshen,  yet  the  cows  to  which  we  look  to  replenish  the 
herd  should  be  carefully  selected.  The  heifer  calves  from  the 
best  cows  should  be  retained  for  breeding.  By  using  a  good 
pure-bred  sire  and  retaining  the  best  heifers  to  replenish  the 
herd,  in  a  few  generations  one  can  have  a  herd  of  cows  equal 
to  any  pure-bred  herd  for  the  production  of  feeding  cattle. 

The  production-period  in  cattle.  —  As  in  the  dairy  cow,  the 
most  fertile  period  is  two  to  eight  years  of  age.  In  exceptional 
cases  this  period  may  be  extended  both  ways  (see  page  246). 

Season  of  the  year  to  breed. — While  it  seems  desirable  to  have 
dairy  calves  dropped  in  the  fall,  it  is  equally  desirable  to  have 
beef  calves  dropped  in  the  spring.     With  dairy  cattle,  a  some- 
what  larger    flow   can   be   ob- 
tained when  calves  come  in  the 
fall.      With  beef  cattle  the  milk 
flow  is  not  so  important.    Cows 
may  be  wintered  more  cheaply 
when  not  in  milk,  requiring  less 
room,     less   careful     attention, 
and  less  food.     Calves  dropped 
in  the  spring  get  a  good  start 
on  pasture.    They  need  be  car- 

.     i  i  .  Fig.  98.  —  Galloway  Heifers.  True 

Tied    OVer    but    One    Winter,     as       totype      Owned  by  C.  S.  Hechtner. 

they  can  be  fattened  or  finished 

the  following  fall  when  approximately  eighteen  months  of  age, 
if  it  is  so  desired ;  or  if  desired  to  fatten  them  during  the 
winter,  they  can  be  finished  the  second  winter  and  put  on 
the  market  at  two  years  of  age.  Fall-dropped  calves  are 
more  trouble  to  care  for  during  the  winter,  although  the  advo- 
cates of  fall-dropped  beef  calves  say  that  better  steers  can  be 
produced  and  developed  by  fall  calving,  as  the  cow  in  the  fall 


314  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

is  in  better  condition ;  they  also  say  that  the  increased  flow 
of  milk  caused  by  turning  the  cow  to  pasture  in  the  spring  is 
a  good  thing  for  the  calf,  and  that  the  fall-dropped  calf  is 
better  able  to  endure  the  heat  and  flies  the  following  summer. 
After  a  careful  consideration  of  both  practices,  the  writer 
thinks  it  desirable  to  have  the  beef  calves  dropped  in  spring. 

A  very  important  factor  in  the  breeding  of  calves  for  feeding 
is  to  breed  the  cows  in  such  a  way  that  the  calves  will  be  as 
nearly  uniform  in  age  as  possible.  This  applies  to  both  fall 
and  spring  bred  calves  that  are  intended  for  feeding.  Farmers 
who  possess  only  a  few  cows  have  them  freshen  at  intervals 
throughout  the  year  in  order  that  they  may  be  well  supplied 
with  milk  the  year  round.  This,  of  course,  makes  the  calves  of 
unequal  age,  and  they  are  not  so  desirable  as  feeding  cattle. 

The  pregna?it  cow.  —  The  pregnant  cow  should  receive  some 
attention,  particularly  when  she  is  to  drop  her  calf  in  the 
spring.  Cows  are  often  carried  through  the  winter  on  a 
ration  of  dry  forage,  such  as  corn  stalks  with  no  grain 
in  addition,  with  the  result  that  they  are  in  very  poor 
condition  at  calving  time.  This  often  leads  to  trouble  at 
parturition  time,  the  cow  being  so  weak  she  cannot  bear  the 
calf,  which  is  likely  to  be  very  small,  thin,  and  weakly. 
The  cow  may  not  have  milk  for  it  at  first,  or  if  she  does, 
it  will  be  thin  and  scant.  Such  a  condition  must  be  avoided 
if  profitable  feeding  calves  are  to  be  propagated.  If  the 
pregnant  cow  may  have  succulence  in  the  shape  of  corn 
silage,  with  clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay  in  addition,  no 
grain  need  be  fed.  These  feeds  should  be  free  from  mold. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  non-nitrogenous  dry  forage  is  to  be  fed, 
she  should  have  grain  in  addition.  Corn  and  wheat  bran  with 
a  small  amount  of  linseed  meal  as  a  conditioner  cannot  be 
improved  upon.  This  may  be  fed  at  the  rate  of  six  pounds 
daily  per  1000  pounds  live  weight.  Shelter  from  the  storms 
and  rain  should  be  provided;  for  this  a  common  shed  open  to 


BREEDING   BEEF  CATTLE  315 

the  south  is  sufficient  except  in  very  cold  climates.  Pregnant 
cows  thus  cared  for  will  come  through  the  winter  in  good  con- 
dition and  give  birth  to  a  strong  thrifty  calf  that,  if  bred  right, 
will  make  a  profitable  feeder. 

Cow  with  calf  at  foot.  —  The  cow  that  is  to  suckle  her  young 
need  not  receive  the  extra  care  that  must  be  accorded  the 
dairy  cow.  When  the  calves  are  dropped  in  the  spring  and 
the  pasture  is  of  good  quality  and  abundant,  the  cows  and 
calves  will  require  very  little  attention  during  the  pasture 
season.  If,  however,  the  pasture  becomes  short  in  late  sum- 
mer and  fall,  extra  feed,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  green  forage, 
or  grain  of  some  kind,  should  be  given.  Cows  and  calves  at 
pasture  should  have  free  access  to  fresh  water.  Salt  should 
be  supplied  at  regular  intervals  or  kept  before  them  at  all 
times.  Shade  of  some  kind  should  be  provided  in  the  absence 
of  trees. 

As  soon  as  convenient  the  calves  should  be  taught  to  eat 
grain.  This  may  be  done  by  arranging  a  small  pen  with 
small  gates  or  passages  through  which  the  calves  may  enter 
but  the  cows  cannot.  The  pen  may  be  placed  near  the  water 
tank.  By  all  means  calves  should  be  taught  to  eat  grain 
before  being  weaned,  as  this  will  prevent  shrinking  at  weaning 
time.  For  suckling  and  weanling  calves,  the  following  grain 
mixture  proves  satisfactory :  3  parts  of  corn  meal,  3  parts 
ground  oats,  3  parts  of  wheat  bran,  and  1  part  of  linseed  meal. 

When  the  calves  are  dropped  in  the  fall,  the  cow  and  calf 
will  require  more  careful  attention ;  this,  however,  comes  during 
the  winter  when  there  is  little  urgent  work  on  farms  where 
cows  are  thus  kept.  The  object  sought  is  so  to  feed  and  manage 
both  cow  and  calf  that  they  may  be  brought  through  the  win- 
ter in  a  healthy  and  thrifty  condition;  the  cow  in  order  that 
she  may  properly  nourish  the  suckling  and  be  in  condition  to 
breed  again  when  so  desired,  the  calf  in  order  that  it  may  make 
a  profitable  feeding  animal,  as  its  future  development  depends 


316  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

much   upon    its    growth    during    the    first   six  months  of   its 
life. 

If  possible,  the  cow  should  have  some  succulent  food,  as 
corn  silage,  as  such  food  improves  her  physical  condition  and 
encourages  the  milk  flow,  thereby  giving  the  calf  a  more  liberal 
supply.  Clover,  alfalfa,  cowpea,  or  mixed  hay  should  con- 
stitute at  least  a  part  of  the  dry  forage,  with  some  grain  fed  in 
addition.  For  the  grain,  a  mixture  of  corn  and  bran  with  a 
little  linseed  meal  added  cannot  be  improved  upon,  and  if  a 
leguminous  dry  forage  with  silage  is  fed,  a  small  amount  of  this 
grain,  say  four  pounds  daily,  will  prove  ample  to  keep  the  cow 
and  calf  in  thriving  condition.  If  the  dry  forage  consists  of 
non-leguminous  plants  only,  such  as  prairie  or  timothy  hay  or 
corn  stalks,  then  a  somewhat  larger  grain  ration  should  be  fed 
and  the  proportion  of  linseed  meal  may  be  increased.  Pro- 
tection from  the  storms  and  rain  must  be  provided.  While  a 
common  shed  open  to  the  south  will  serve  where  the  mercury 
seldom  goes  below  zero,  it  is  not  sufficient  in  colder  climates, 
particularly  if  very  moist.  On  the  other  hand,  the  quarters 
must  not  be  dark,  damp,  and  poorly  ventilated,  as  such  is  the 
ideal  place  for  the  propagation  of  all  kinds  of  calf  ills.  The 
quarters  should  be  measurably  protected,  well  lighted,  well 
ventilated,  and  dry.  Cows  and  calves  thus  cared  for  will  come 
through  the  winter  in  a  thrifty  and  healthy  condition.  As  on 
pasture,  the  calves  should  be  taught  to  eat  grain  as  soon  as 
convenient  and  by  all  means  at  least  one  month  before 
weaning. 

The  calf  that  is  permitted  to  suckle  its  dam  can  be  raised 
with  little  extra  care.  It  should  have  attention  at  birth  to 
see  that  the  function  of  respiration  is  started,  and  that  it  gets 
some  of  the  first  or  colostrum  milk  of  the  dam.  If  the  calf 
scours  badly,  some  of  the  dam's  milk  should  be  drawn  off, 
remembering  that  the  last  milk  is  richer  in  fat,  and  is  the  part 
likely  to  cause  the  trouble.     After  the  calf  gets  a  start  by  proper 


BREEDING   BEEF  CATTLE  317 

feeding  of  the  dam,  both  cow  and  calf  can  be  kept  in  healthy 
condition. 

Male  calves  should  be  castrated  before  they  have  reached 
the  age  of  three  months,  and  this  may  be  done  any  time  after 
the  calf  is  one  week  old.  If  hornless  animals  are  desired,  the 
horns  should  be  removed  with  caustic  potash  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  appear  (page  255). 

Calves  should  be  weaned  at  five  to  eight  months  of  age. 
Weaning  is  rather  a  question  of  preparation  than  of  the 
absolute  removal  of  the  calf  from  the  cow,  and  the  simplicity 
of  the  weaning  process  depends  on  the  thoroughness  of  the 
preparation.  If  the  calf  has  been  accustomed  to  the  grain  as 
suggested,  if  it  has  been  permitted  to  take  increasingly  more 
as  it  grows,  the  process  will  not  be  difficult,  for  as  the  ration 
increases  in  the  amount  of  grain  it  will  decrease  in  the  amount 
of  milk.  With  such  precaution,  there  will  be  very  little  if  any 
set-back  or  disturbance  to  calf  or  dam.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  calf  must  learn  to  eat  after  being  deprived  of  its  accus- 
tomed source  of  food  supply,  it  will  require  time  to  get  used  to 
the  new  condition,  and  the  cow  will  demand  special  care,  be- 
cause of  the  removal  of  the  calf  before  her  milk  supply  has 
been  diminished  to  any  extent. 

Weanlings  should  be  well  cared  for  during  their  first  winter 
if  they  are  to  make  profitable  feeding  cattle.  They  should 
have  snug  quarters,  with  opportunity  for  exercise,  and  be  well 
fed.  Weanling  calves  are  often  let  run  with  the  stock  cattle 
and  compelled  to  subsist  entirely  on  dry  forage,  with  the  result 
that  they  run  down  in  condition  and  sometimes  are  stunted, 
from  which  they  never  fully  recover.  A  calf  that  is  once 
stunted  will  not  make  a  good  feeding  animal.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  these  weanlings  are  fed  a  liberal  allowance,  say  four 
pounds  daily  per  head,  of  the  grain  mixture  suggested  for  the 
sucking  calf,  with  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpea,  or  mixed  hays  in 
addition,  they  will  come  through  the  winter  strong  and  thrifty 


318  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  will  give  a  good  account  of  themselves  when  fattened  the 
following  summer. 

Calves  cared  for  as  suggested  should  reach  a  weight  of 
375  to  450  pounds  by  the  time  they  are  six  months  of  age. 
While  such  calves  make  very  excellent  beef  when  well  fed,  they 
are  nevertheless  very  expensive,  for  the  breeder  must  keep  the 
cow  one  year  for  the  production  of  this  400-pound  calf.  No 
exact  figures  can  be  given  as  to  the  cost,  for  much  will  depend 
on  the  conditions..  It  is  true  that  formerly  many  calves  were 
thus  raised  in  the  grain  belt,  whereas  at  the  present  time  prac- 
tically none  are  so  raised.  It  would  seem  then  to  be  no  longer 
profitable  on  land  suited  for  grain  growing.  In  view  of  recent 
developments  it  seems  unlikely  that  the  price  of  beef  will  go 
high  enough  to  make  it  a  profitable  industry.  That  producing 
such  calves  can  be  made  a  profitable  industry  in  the  outlying 
territory  of  cheap  pasture  lands,  however,  admits  of  no  doubt. 

Feeding  the  beef  calf.  —  If  the  cow's  milk  is  desired,  the  calf 
should  be  weaned  on  or  before  the  ninth  milking,  when  the 
milk  becomes  fit  for  human  consumption.  As  a  rule  the  earlier 
the  calf  is  weaned  the  more  easily  it  can  be  taught  to  drink 
from  the  pail.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  better  for  both  cow 
and  calf  to  have  the  calf  suckle  as  long  as  possible.  The  beef 
calf  can  be  taught  to  drink  and  changed  from  whole  to  skim 
milk  much  as  suggested  for  the  dairy  calf  (pages  251  to  255). 

There  has  been  much  discussion  from  time  to  time,  among 
beef  producers,  as  to  the  possibilities  of  the  skim-milk-fed  calf 
as  a  beef-producing  animal.  In  fact,  the  skim-milk  calf  as  a 
beef  producer  is  not  likely  to  be  considered  seriously  by  the 
experienced  beef  producers  of  the  middle  West.  To  these  men 
the  skim-milk  calf  means  a  stunted,  pot-bellied  animal  with 
papery  skin,  lacking  in  quality  and  thrift,  a  fit  subject  for  ridi- 
cule, but  hardly  worth  while  in  the  feed  lot.  That  these  ex- 
perienced men  are  justified  in  their  opinion  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  for  the  average  skim-milk  calf  has  not  much  to  recom- 


BREEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  319 

mend  him  as  a  beef-producing  animal.  On  the  other  hand, 
conditions  are  rapidly  becoming  such  that  we  are  obliged  to 
rety,  in  part  at  least,  on  these  skim-milk  calves  for  the  coun- 
try's beef  supply.  Furthermore,  it  has  been  proved  that  by 
giving  the  skim-milk  calf  proper  care  a  fair  kind  of  beef-produc- 
ing animal  may  result.  Such  a  calf  should  have  extra  care 
and  be  encouraged  from  the  beginning,  for  it  must  be  remem- 
bered to  attempt  to  make  beef  from  a  stunted  calf  will  prove 
an  unprofitable  venture.  They  must  be  kept  strong  and 
thrifty. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT   OF  BEEF   CATTLE 

The  ability  to  fatten  cattle  rapidly  and  quickly  is  to  be 
increased  and  strengthened  by  careful  study  and  experience. 
All  that  may  be  spoken  or  written  will  not  make  one  suc- 
cessful, nor  cover  his  defects,  if  he  does  not  take  kindly  to 
the  work.  Study,  observation,  and  especially  practice  add  to 
the  ability  of  the  cattle  feeder.  The  ability  to  carry  a  steer 
through  a  one-hundred-and-eighty-day  fattening  period  without 
once  getting  him  "off  feed"  is  the  end  to  be  attained. 

The  importance  of  regularity  in  everything  that  pertains  to 
the  management  of  feeding  cattle  cannot  easily  be  overesti- 
mated. This  applies  particularly  to  administering  feed  and 
water.  Cattle  anticipate  the  hour  of  feeding  and  become 
nervous  if  it  is  long  delayed;  they  bellow,  coax,  and  become 
much  excited,  all  of  which  operates  against  the  economical  pro- 
duction of  beef. 

Sudden  changes  in  the  food  are  to  be  avoided,  as  the  digestive 
system  is  unable  to  accommodate  itself  at  once  to  such  changes, 
and  digestive  disorders  are  likely  to  follow.  Such  shifts 
sometimes  result  in  scours,  other  times  in  colic,  and  in  fact  may 
result  in  various  kinds  of  indigestion.  When  necessary  to 
change  from  one  food  to  another,  the  transfer  should  be  made 
slowly  and  gradually,  replacing  the  old  with  the  new. 

Scouring  is  very  disastrous  and  should  be  carefully  avoided, 
as  a  single  day's  laxness  may  offset  a  week's  gain.  The 
inexperienced    feeder    is    likely   to   overfeed    because    of    the 

320 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  BEEF  CATTLE        321 

desire  to  push  the  cattle  to  better  gains,  which  not  only 
often  induces  scours,  but  has  a  tendency  to  throw  the 
cattle  off  feed.  Cattle  of  about  the  same  size  and  strength 
should  be  fed  in  the  same  lot  or  pasture,  while  weak  animals 
and  those  unable  to  push  their  way  to  the  feed-rack  and  get 
their  share  should  be  placed  where  they  can  be  supplied  in 
quiet.  Strong  animals  often  push  the  weak  away  from  the 
feed-troughs,  which  not  only  prevents  the  weaker  from  feeding, 
but  enables  the  stronger  to  get  an  overfeed,  resulting  in  scours 
or  other  digestive  disorders.  Unwholesome  food,  or  a  fault  in 
the  feeding  mixture,  may  result  in  scours. 

At  a  glance,  the  successful  and  experienced  cattle  feeder 
recognizes  the  shortcomings  among  his  fattening  cattle.  By 
going  through  the  feed  lots,  noting  the  condition  of  the 
manure  or  droppings,  their  general  appearance  and  odor,  by 
noting  the  feed-boxes  and  the  general  conduct  of  the  cattle,  he 
is  able  to  discern  their  needs,  and  governs  himself  accordingly. 
The  droppings  of  the  steers  are  an  excellent  index  to  the  prog- 
ress of  fattening  cattle.  While  these  droppings  should  never 
be  hard,  they  should,  however,  be  thick  enough  to  pile  up  and 
have  that  greasy  or  bland  appearance  that  indicates  a  healthy 
action  of  the  liver.  The  droppings  from  steers  that  are  not 
fattening  well,  or  suffering  from  indigestion,  have  a  disagreeable 
odor.  Sour-smelling  odors,  and  thin  watery  droppings  indicate 
something  wrong  with  the  feeding  cattle. 

The  behavior  of  the  cattle  is  a  further  index  to  their  general 
thrift  and  progress  in  fattening.  Their  quiet  pose  while  rumi- 
nating; their  peculiar  loud  breathing  when  lying  down,  due 
no  doubt  to  the  cramped  position  of  the  internal  organs  be- 
cause of  a  well-filled  paunch ;  the  quiet  and  prominent  eyes ; 
their  manner  of  approaching  the  feed-box ;  the  way  in  which 
they  feed ;  their  mellow  skin  and  oily  coat ;  and  in  fact  each 
movement,  gives  the  experienced  cattle  feeder  a  clew  as  to  their 
general  condition. 


322  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

FARMS    FOR    FATTENING    CATTLE 

While  cattle  feeding  may  be  conducted  on  any  farm,  there 
are  two  general  types  of  farms  on  which  it  is  likely  to  prove 
the  more  profitable.  First,  grain  farms  that  grow  large  quan- 
tities of  dry  forage  incidental  to  the  grain  and  which  would  be 
otherwise  largely  wasted ;  second,  pasture  farms,  where  for 
some  reason  grain  cannot  be  successfully  grown  and  where 
the  land  is  suitable  for  pasture. 

EQUIPMENT   FOR    SUMMER    FEEDING 

In  considering  the  profits  likely  to  result  from  steer  feeding, 
among  the  first  items  to  be  taken  into  account  is  the  equip- 
ment. While  the  equipment  for  beef  production  is  not  nearly 
as  extensive  as  for  milk  production,  there  are,  nevertheless,  a 
few  necessities  to  be  provided.  Since  the  equipment  for  sum- 
mer feeding  on  pasture  differs  from  that  of  winter  feeding  in 
the  dry-lot,  each  will  be  considered  separately. 

The  necessary  equipment  for  summer  feeding  on  pasture 
consists  of  the  pasture,  the  feeding-boxes  or  bunks,  water, 
shade,  and  salt. 

Pasture.  —  The  importance  of  properly  managed  pastures 
cannot  be  overestimated.  The  general  management,  such  as 
the  importance  of  a  good  stand  of  grass ;  of  keeping  down  the 
weeds ;  of  providing  suitable  drainage ;  of  top  dressing  with 
barnyard  manure  when  convenient;  and  of  not  turning  to 
pasture  too  early  in  the  spring,  was  discussed  on  pages  284  to 
289.  It  was  there  shown  that  many  pastures  that  are  now 
supporting  one  animal  to  three  or  four  acres  could,  with  very 
little  extra  care,  be  made  to  support  an  animal  to  the  acre  with- 
out feed  in  addition,  or  two  animals  to  one  acre  by  the  use 
of  additional  feed,  such  as  is  commonly  practiced  in  the  beef- 
producing  localities  of  the  central  West. 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  BEEF  CATTLE         323 

Feed-bunk.  —  While  any  kind  of  durable  box  or  trough,  slightly 
elevated,  may  be  used  in  feeding  grain,  a  feed-bunk  similar 
to  those  illustrated  in  Fig.  99  will  prove  the  most  efficient. 
These  feed-bunks  are  three  feet  wide,  fifteen  feet  long,  inside  di- 
mension, and  two  and  one-half  feet  high.  They  are  constructed 
as  follows :  From  a  4"  X  4"  scantling  cut  six  posts  two  and 
one-half  feet  long,  bevel  off  the  top  of  each  so  as  to  shed  water 
and  prevent  the  sharp  corners  from  injuring  the  cattle.  Cut 
three  2"X12"  plank  sixteen  feet  long  and  six  2"X4  "'s  four  feet 
long.  Place  two  of  the  2"  X  4"\s,  edges  up,  on  a  level  place,  in 
such  a  position  that  when  the  sixteen  foot  plank  are  placed  upon 
them,  the  plank  will  project  over  one  inch  on  either  end,  thus 
leaving  the  2"  X  4"'s  fifteen  and  one-half  feet  apart,  inside 
dimensions.  Spike  or,  better  still,  bolt  the  three  2"  X  12"  plank 
to  these  2"  X  4"'s,  leaving  six  inches  clear  on  either  end  of  the 
2"  X  4"'s.  Place  a  third  2"  X  4"  under  the  three  planks  two 
inches  to  one  side  of  the  middle,  and  spike  or  bolt  fast,  leaving 
six  inches  on  either  end  of  the  2"  X  4"  projecting  as  before. 
Cut  two  2"  X  8"  plank  sixteen  feet  long  and  place  one,  edge  up, 
either  side  of  the  platform,  thus  making  a  box;  spike  fast  to  the 
2"  X  12"'s  and  to  the  2"  X  4"'s.  Elevate  the  box  thus  con- 
structed, and  with  six  8"  bolts,  bolt  fast  to  the  4"  X  4"  posts, 
thus  making  a  bunk  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  99.  Cut  two 
2"  X  6"'s  approximately  three  feet  long  for  the  ends.  This 
should  be  accurately  measured  in  order  to  fit  tightly.  Place  the 
remaining  three  2"  X  4"'s  under  the  box  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  4"  X  4"  posts,  bolt  and  spike  all  together.  Invert  the 
bunk  and  batten  the  cracks  with  1"  X  3"\s,  otherwise  the  timber 
in  the  bunk  will  dry  out,  leaving  cracks  through  which  the  grain 
will  leak.  This  bunk  can  be  materially  strengthened  by  plac- 
ing three  4  rods  across,  one  at  either  end  and  one  in  the 
center.  One  bunk  of  the  dimensions  given  will  be  sufficient  to 
accommodate  fifteen  to  twenty  cattle,  depending  on  their  size. 
Any  kind  of  lumber  may  be  used,  but  oak  is  the  more  durable 


324 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


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35 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  BEEF  CATTLE        325 

and  will  make  a  stronger  bunk.     Such  a  bunk  can  be  moved 
from  place  to  place. 

The  self-feeder  is  a  feed  box  or  bin  holding  a  large  amount  of 
grain  and  so  arranged  that  part  of  the  grain  is  accessible  to 
the  cattle  at  all  times.  The  great  advantage  stated  for  self- 
feeders  is  that  they  save  labor.  They  have  been  used  with  vary- 
ing success,  some  cattle  feeders  using  them  continuously,  others 
using  them  one  or  two  years  and  then  abandoning  them.  In 
some  localities  the  self-feeder  is  common,  in  others  not  known. 

Shade.  —  When  there  are  trees  in  the  pastures,  the  matter  of 
shade  need  receive  no  attention,  but  in  the  absence  of  natural 
shade,  some  provision  should  be  made  for  it  especially  during 
the  hot,  dry  weather  when  the  flies  are  troublesome.  Droves 
of  fattening  cattle  occasionally  become  so  excited,  due  to  the 
excessive  heat  and  flies,  that  they  bunch  up  or  stampede  and 
sometimes  injure  each  other,  or  whoever  comes  in  their  way. 

Water.  —  Fattening  cattle  must  be  supplied  with  an  abun- 
dance of  fresh  water  at  all  times.  Many  pastures  through- 
out the  country  are  not  thus  supplied.  As  a  rule  beef 
cannot  be  produced  economically  on  such  farms.  The  hotter 
and  dryer  the  weather,  the  more  the  cattle  need,  and  this  is  just 
the  time  there  is  likely  to  be  a  shortage.  In  the  absence  of 
running  water,  perhaps  the  most  efficient  source  is  a  good  well, 
equipped  with  a  wind  pump.  When  the  water  is  pumped  by 
hand  and  the  drove  of  cattle  large,  the  water  supply  is  likely 
to  be  deficient.  It  is  also  important  that  the  water  be  fresh 
and  clean.  Hot,  stale,  and  muddy  water,  laden  with  mosquito 
larvae  and  other  impurities,  is  not  fit  for  cattle  to  drink. 
Something  better  than  mud-holes  should  be  supplied. 

Salt  should  either  be  kept  before  the  feeding  cattle  at  all 
times  or  supplied  them  regularly  twice  each  week.  A  very 
good  plan  is  to  cut  a  common  salt  barrel  in  two  at  the  middle 
and  place  one-half  where  the  cattle  can  have  free  access  to  it. 
This  should  be  under  a  shed,  as  rain  dissolves  the  salt. 


326  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

EQUIPMENT    FOR   WINTER    FEEDING 

The  equipment  for  feeding  cattle  in  the  winter  deserves 
special  attention ;  not  that  it  is  difficult  or  expensive  but 
that  the  proper  kind  of  equipment  is  often  neglected  and 
much  money  expended  for  items  that  are  not  only  unnecessary 
but  positively  objectionable.  The  most  particular  item  is 
that  of  efficient  shelter.  Other  items  are  the  feed-lot  and  its 
location,  the  racks  from  which  to  feed  dry  forage,  and  the 
like. 

Shelter  for  winter  feeding.  —  While  it  is  essential  to  provide 
warm  winter  quarters  for  the  dairy  cow,  because  she  is  thin  in 
flesh  and  because  of  the  nature  of  her  product,  such  warm 
quarters  are  not  necessary  for  the  fattening  steer.  The  fat- 
tening steer  possesses  a  coat  of  fat  or  flesh  which  serves  to 
protect  him  from  the  cold,  and  when  on  full  feed  the  heat  gen- 
erated in  the  body  by  masticating,  digesting,  and  assimilating 
the  food  is  sufficient  to  maintain  the  body  temperature.  No 
doubt  the  needs  of  the  fattening  animal  are  such  as  to  make  a 
reasonable  amount  of  cold  air  beneficial  rather  than  detrimental. 
But  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  fattening  steer  be  kept  dry 
and  provided  with  a  comfortable  dry  bed.  Dry  quarters  are 
far  more  important  than  warm  quarters.  A  structure  which 
protects  the  animals  from  the  rain  and  snow  and  provides 
them  with  a  dry  comfortable  bed  is  sufficient. 

Waters,  who  has  thoroughly  investigated  the  shelter  prob- 
lem, concludes  his  work  as  follows  :  "  Apparently  then  the  only 
shelter  required  for  cattle  of  this  class  is  that  which  will  protect 
them  from  rain  and  snow  and  break  the  northwest  winds  and 
furnish  a  dry  place  in  which  the  animals  may  lie  down.  It  is 
more  important  that  the  fattening  animal  lie  down  regularly 
and  during  a  large  portion  of  the  time  than  that  he  be  pro- 
tected from  the  cold.  An  abundance  of  sunshine  and  fresh  air, 
a  comfortable  place  in  which  to  lie,  and  freedom  from  external 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  BEEF  CATTLE        327 

disturbances  furnish  ideal  conditions  for  rapid  and  economic 
gains." 

The  feed-lot.  —  Relatively  too  little  attention  is  given  the  feed- 
lot.  In  choosing  the  location  of  the  lot,  consideration  should 
be  given  to  drainage  and  the  natural  protection.  A  south 
slope  is  the  most  desirable,  as  the  water  will  drain  off  quickly 
after  a  rain,  and  the  fall  benefit  of  the  sun's  rays  will  be  received. 
A  muddy  lot  is  one  of  the  greatest  objections  to  winter  feeding. 
Over  much  of  the  grain  belt  the  soil  is  rather  impervious  to 
water,  which  is  held  at  the  surface.  The  cattle  in  walking 
mix  the  water  with  the  soil,  which  is  often  clay,  thus  making 
a  most  disagreeable  mud. 

The  only  known  corrective  for  such  lots  is  to  pave  them,  or 
at  least  in  part,  particularly  where  the  animals  must  lie  and 
where  the  feed-bunks  and  racks  are  placed.  For  this  purpose 
various  materials  are  used,  chief  of  which  are  cobble  stones, 
bricks,  cement,  and  plank.  Before  laying  the  pavement  a 
grade  should  be  established  slightly  higher  than  the  sur- 
rounding surface,  to  eliminate  the  surface  water.  The  grade 
should  have  a  slope  of  at  least  one  inch  to  six  feet.  The  surface 
should  then  be  covered  with  six  inches  of  gravel  rolled  and 
tamped  down  solid ;  over  this  place  a  one-inch  covering  of  fine 
sand  on  which  the  brick  or  cobble  stone  may  be  laid.  Roll, 
or  better  still,  tamp  down  solid.  Over  this  should  be  placed  a 
cement  mortar  of  the  consistency  of  cream  made  by  thoroughly 
mixing  one  part  clean  sharp  sand  and  one  part  of  Portland 
cement.  This  mixture  should  be  thoroughly  swept  into  the 
joints  and  cracks.  A  second  coat  of  the  cement  mortar  may  be 
laid  in  ten  days  to  insure  the  complete  filling  of  the  cracks  and 
joints.  A  feed-lot  thus  paved  will  be  free  from  mud,  can  be 
cleaned  with  team  and  scraper,  and  makes  a  very  desirable 
place  on  which  to  feed  cattle. 

Platform  for  feed-bunks.  —  On  soils  that  are  porous  and  from 
which  the  water  drains  off  rapidly,  the  mud  gives  little  incon- 


328  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

venience  except  about  the  feed-bunks,  dry-forage-racks,  and 
water-tank.  About  these  and  extending  back  six  feet,  may 
be  placed  a  few  loads  of  coarse  gravel  or,  better  still,  a  pave- 
ment similar  to  that  described  above,  or  a  plank  platform. 
Whatever  the  material  used  in  construction,  it  should  be  so 
arranged  that  the  farmer  may  drive  alongside  the  bunk  or  rack 
with  a  load  of  feed.  Such  platforms  will  save  feed  bills  enough 
each  year  to  pay  for  their  construction,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
extra  annoyance  caused  by  the  mud  in  case  they  are  not  used. 
The  same  feed-bunks  suggested  for  feeding  on  pasture  may  be 
moved  to  the  lot  and  used  for  winter  feeding  as  well.  As  a 
rule,  it  is  not  desirable  to  place  the  feed-bunk  under  the  shed 
except  when  the  winters  are  extra  severe. 

Dry-forage-rack.  —  It  is  not  advisable  to  have  the  feed-bunks 
and  the  dry-forage-racks  combined,  since  the  litter  from  the 
dry  forage  falling  upon  the  grain  renders  it  distasteful  to  cattle, 
particularly  when  on  a  full  grain  ration.  Neither  is  it  advis- 
able to  construct  such  racks  under  the  shed  except  where  the 
climate  is  very  disagreeable,  though  they  should  be  placed  to 
the  south  of  the  shed  or  barn  to  protect  them  measurably  from 
the  winds  and  driving  storms.  The  form  and  shape  of  the  dry- 
forage-racks  will  depend  on  the  condition  in  which  dry  forage 
is  fed,  corn  stalks  calling  for  one  form,  hay  for  another,  and 
chopped  hay  or  shredded  fodder  for  still  another.  As  these  racks 
are  likely  to  be  permanent,  they  should  be  constructed  to  meet 
the  particular  conditions  under  which  they  are  to  be  used. 

Water-tanks.  —  A  liberal  supply  of  fresh  water  is  as  essential 
for  winter  feeding  as  for  summer  feeding.  While  water  is 
likely  to  be  more  plentiful  in  winter  than  in  summer,  it  is  often 
allowed  to  freeze  for  days  at  a  time,  so  that  the  cattle  are  wholly 
deprived  of  a  supply  and  often  compelled  to  eat  snow  or  lick 
the  ice  to  get  the  water  needed  for  their  bodies.  In  very  severe 
weather  cattle  are  not  likely  to  drink  much  ice  water ;  this  ob- 
servation has  led  the  rather  careless  cattle  feeder  to  think  the 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  BEEF  CATTLE        329 

cattle  do  not  need  much  water  at  such  times.  This  is  a  mis- 
taken idea,  as  fattening  cattle  need  a  liberal  supply  of  fresh 
water  at  all  times,  even  though  they  will  not  consume  as  much 
as  in  the  hot,  dry  weather  of  mid-summer. 


Fig.  100.  —  Red  Polled  Bull  "Cremo.  "     Avery  noted  prize  winner,  owned 
by  Frank  Davis  &  Son,  Holbrook,  Neb. 

The  Red  Polled  cattle,  natives  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  counties,  England,  are 
classed  as  dual  purpose.  They  give  good  returns  in  both  beef  and  milk,  but 
do  not  equal  the  beef  cattle  for  beef  or  the  milk  cattle  for  milk.  In  size  the 
bulls  range  from  1500  to  2000  pounds,  the  cows  1200  to  1400  pounds.  The 
color  is  always  red,  and  the  horns  wanting. 


When  the  water-tanks  are  not  too  large,  a  very  good  way  to 
prevent  freezing,  except  in  very  severe  weather,  is  to  encase 
the  tank  in  a  box  or  frame  and  fill  this  frame  with  litter  from 
the  horse  stable.  The  frame  should  be  so  constructed  as  to 
permit  the  use  of  a  layer  of  this  manure  at  least  one  foot 
thick  all  around  the  tank.  By  covering  all,  both  frame  and 
tank,  with  a  large  lid  which  is  to  be  shut  down  at  night,  and 


330  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

during  a  part  of  the  day  when  the  weather  is  severe,  there 
is  not  much  likelihood  of  the  water  freezing.  A  little  labor 
spent  in  constructing  such  a  frame  will  save  many  times  its 
cost  in  food,  as  it  requires  considerable  heat  to  warm  up  the 
ice  water  that  cattle  drink. 


CHAPTER  XV 
DISEASES   OF  CATTLE 

Cattle  are  very  subject  to  certain  diseases  which  render 
their  usage  for  domestic  purposes  questionable.  Milk  from 
diseased  cows,  or  meat  from  diseased  carcasses,  may  endanger 
the  lives  of  those  who  consume  it.  While  these  diseases  are 
properly  classed  as  incurable,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
they  are  communicable  germ  diseases  and  are  therefore  pre- 
ventable. Therefore,  some  space  will  be  devoted  to  their  pre- 
vention. In  addition  to  these  diseases,  cattle  are  subject  to  a 
number  of  ailments,  some  of  which  are  simple  and  easily  cared 
for,  but  more  of  which  are  somewhat  complicated,  requiring 
skilled  treatment. 

The  sick  cow  should  receive  much  care,  as  in  many  cases  good 
care  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  use  of  medicine  (see  page  151). 
This  chapter  is  intended  merely  to  serve  as  a  guide  and  to 
make  suggestions;  it  is  not  designed  to  take  the  place  of  a 
good  veterinarian,  who  should  always  be  called  in  case  of 
serious  difficulty  or  doubt.  The  dosages  here  advised,  except 
when  otherwise  noted,  are  for  mature  animals. 

DISEASES     OF   THE    GENERATIVE    ORGANS,    AND    DIFFICULTIES    OF 

PARTURITION 

There  are  few  diseases  to  which  cattle  are  subject  that  are 
of  wider  interest  than  those  of  the  generative  organs.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  those  herds  that  are  being  kept  for  breed- 
ing purposes  and  when  the  principal  product  is  the  offspring. 

331 


332  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Cattle  are  particularly  subject  to  a  contagious  form  of  abortion 
which  destroys  many  young  before  they  can  live  out  of  the  womb. 
The  principal  diseases  or  difficulties  are  barrenness ;  abortion, 
both  contagious  and  non-contagious ;  difficult  parturition ;  re- 
tention of  the  afterbirth;  milk-fever;   garget. 

Barrenness  in  cows.  —  It  often  happens  that  cows  are  served 
normally,  yet  fail  to  conceive.  Some  of  the  causes  of  this  diffi- 
culty are  readily  understood  and  easily  prevented,  while  others 
are  not  well  understood  and  are  beyond  control  of  the  breeder. 
An  excess  of  rich  and  stimulating  foods  is  a  common  cause  of 
non-breeding,  especially  if  the  animals  are  denied  exercise. 
The  dangers  attending  parturition  are  often  more  than  tre- 
bled in  the  case  of  fat  animals.  This  excessive  fat,  however, 
may  be  of  much  advantage  once  these  dangers  are  past.  On  the 
other  hand,  barrenness  may  be  due  to  poor  feeding,  the  system 
being  weakened  by  the  lack  of  sufficient  nutrition.  Undue 
sexual  excitement  at  the  most  active  stage  of  heat  is  often 
responsible  for  the  cow  not  conceiving.  Cows  that  for  some 
reason  have  missed  a  season  are  often  difficult  to  impregnate. 
Animals  that  are  too  closely  inbred  are  also  likely  to  be 
barren.  In  addition  to  these,  there  is  a  long  line  of  causes  of 
barrenness  in  cows  over  which  the  breeder  has  little  or  no  con- 
trol, such  as  derangement  of  the  sex  organs,  diseased  ovaries, 
tumors,  and  the  like. 

Abortion  in  cows.  —  Abortion  in  cows  is  either  contagious  or 
non-contagious.  Because  of  the  great  differences  as  to  cause 
and  subsequent  treatment,  we  consider  them  separately. 

Non-contagious  abortion.  —  This  is  produced  by  any  cause 
operating  to  disconnect  the  union  of  the  fetal  membrane  from  the 
uterus.  A  cow  may  abort  by  reason  of  almost  any  cause  that 
very  generally  disturbs  her  system,  as  from  the  influence  of  a  too 
stimulating  diet  or  the  reverse,  as  when  the  nourishment  is  so 
deficient  that  the  fetus  dies  in  the  womb;  damp,  unhealthy 
stables ;   worms  in  the  bowels,  lungs,  or  liver ;   indigestion  of  all 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  333 

kinds ;  the  drinking  of  putrid,  stagnant  water ;  of  ice  water ; 
the  eating  of  iced  grass ;  of  ergot,  of  smuts  on  corn  or  other 
grains;  and  severe  illness.  The  more  direct  mechanical  causes 
are  falls,  strains,  violent  exertion,  and  blows ;  also  traveling  on 
icy  ground,  muddy  roads,  or  jumping  over  fences,  ditches,  and 
the  like. 

The  prevention  of  non-contagious  abortion  is  the  avoidance 
of  all  causes  that  are  likely  to  produce  it.  All  causes  of  excite- 
ment, of  constipation,  of  diarrhea,  of  indigestion,  and  the  like 
must  be  avoided.  With  cattle,  non-contagious  abortion  may 
often  be  prevented,  although  the  first  signs  have  appeared.  So 
long  as  the  fetus  has  not  perished,  the  waters  not  discharged,  nor 
the  water-bags  presented,  attempts  should  be  made  to  check  the 
progress.  Place  the  cow  alone  in  a  quiet  stall  and  check  the 
labor  pains  if  possible.  To  do  this,  laudanum  given  in  one  ounce 
doses  for  small  cows  and  two  ounce  doses  for  large  ones  is  good. 
Repeat  the  dose  in  three  or  four  hours  should  the  labor  pains 
recur.  When  all  measures  fail  and  miscarriage  results,  all  that 
can  be  done  is  to  assist  in  the  removal  of  the  fetus  and  its  mem- 
branes, as  in  ordinary  parturition. 

Contagious  abortion  in  cows. — -Though  not  well  understood, 
contagious  abortion  is  known  to  be  due  to  an  organism.  The 
germ  producing  the  disease  is  conveyed  by  infected  bulls,  by  the 
tongue  or  tail  of  infected  animals,  or  by  the  external  genital 
organs  coming  in  contact  with  the  wall,  fence,  rubbing  post, 
litter,  or  floor  which  has  been  previously  soiled  by  an  injected 
animal. 

Cows  should  be  kept  in  fair  flesh  and  in  vigorous  condition. 
The  method  of  preventing  contagious  abortion  differs  from  non- 
contagious only  in  the  separation  of  the  infected  animals  and  in 
free  use  of  disinfectants.  When  a  cow  shows  signs  of  aborting, 
or  when  she  has  aborted,  she  should  be  separated  from  the  other 
cows  and  the  stable  or  stall  she  occupied  thoroughly  disinfected. 
For  this  purpose,  use  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  a 


334  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

1  to  1000  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  All  litter  and  the  dead 
fetus  should  be  burned.  After  the  cow  has  aborted,  she  must 
be  kept  thoroughly  clean  by  use  of  a  disinfectant.  Dissolve  1 
dram  of  corrosive  sublimate,  1  ounce  each  of  alcohol  and  glycer- 
ine, shake  this  up  in  a  gallon  of  water,  and  use  as  an  injection 
into  the  vagina  and  wash  the  parts  about  the  vulva  and  root  of 
the  tail.  Disinfect  the  animal  each  day  as  long  as  the  discharge 
continues.  Do  not  breed  aborting  cows  for  two  or  three  months. 
For  two  days  before  breeding,  the  vagina  should  be  washed  out 
with  the  sublimate-alcohol-glycerine-solution,  but  on  the  day 
of  breeding  warm  water  only  should  be  used  as  the  corrosive 
sublimate  will  destroy  the  semen.  The  disease  seems  to  run 
out  and  disappear  from  the  herd  after  a  time. 

The  best  methods  of  combating  contagious  abortion  are 
cleanliness,  the  free  use  of  disinfectants,  isolation  of  infected 
cows,  and  precautions  against  using  infected  bulls.  Many  pre- 
ventive remedies  have  been  suggested,  of  which  the  following  is 
as  good  as  any:  Mix  one  pound  of  pulverized  hyposulfite  of 
soda,  one  pound  of  sulfur,  and  ten  pounds  of  common  salt. 
Give  a  small  handful  to  each  pregnant  cow  two  or  three  times 
a  week. 

Difficult  parturition.  —  There  are  a  number  of  causes  of  diffi- 
cult parturition  among  cattle.  Cows,  however,  have  an  ad- 
vantage over  mares,  in  that  the  fetus  and  fetal  membranes  are 
more  strongly  attached  and  not  so  likely  to  be  disconnected  and 
may,  therefore,  be  left  alone  longer  with  practically  no  danger 
to  the  young.  Among  cows  the  maxim  may  be :  Do  not  inter- 
fere too  soon.  Bruising,  tearing  of  the  passages,  and  bleeding 
from  the  uncontracted  womb  may  follow  the  too  rapid  extrac- 
tion of  the  calf.  If  there  is  no  obstruction,  let  the  calf  be  ex- 
pelled slowly  by  the  unaided  efforts  of  the  cow. 

If,  however,  after  the  cow  has  labored  some  time,  there 
seems  to  be  some  mechanical  obstruction,  she  should  be  ex- 
amined.    As  this  is  likely  to  be  much  of  a  task,  the  operator 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  335 

should  prepare  himself  for  it  by  dressing  in  a  shirt  from  which  the 
sleeves  have  been  cut  off  at  the  shoulder.  This  avoids  danger 
of  soiling  the  clothing  or  of  exposure,  as  is  the  case  when  the 
shirt  is  removed,  and  yet  leaves  the  whole  arm  free  for  the  work. 
The  hand  and  arm  should  be  smeared  with  oil,  lard,  or  vaseline. 
This  grease  should  be  fresh,  neither  salted  nor  rancid,  and 
should  be  purified  by  boiling  or  rendered  antiseptic  by  the 
addition  of  a  tablespoonful  of  carbolic  acid  to  the  pound  of 
grease.  This  should  always  be  done,  as  it  protects  both  the  cow 
and  the  operator  from  infection. 

After  the  labor  pains  have  lasted  some  time  without  any  signs 
of  the  fetus,  the  hand  should  be  introduced  to  examine ;  if  the 
water-bags  have  burst  and  neither  feet  nor  head  appear  for  some 
time,  if  one  fore  foot  only  and  the  head  appears,  or  both  fore 
feet  without  the  head,  or  the  head  without  the  fore  feet,  and 
if  one  hind  foot  appears  without  the  other,  make  very  careful 
examination.  In  normal  presentation  the  fore  feet,  hoofs  down, 
should  first  appear,  then  the  nose.  In  any  of  these  abnormal 
presentations,  secure  the  presented  limb  or  head  by  a  rope  with 
a  running  noose,  so  that  in  case  it  should  slip  back  into  the 
womb  it  will  not  get  lost  during  the  examination,  but  may  be 
retained  in  the  vagina  or  easily  brought  up  again.  This 
examination  can  be  made  much  easier  if  one  turns  the  cow 
with  head  down  hill,  as  the  internal  organs  gravitate  forward 
into  the  belly  of  the  cow  thus  making  more  room  in  which  to 
bring  up  the  missing  limb  or  head  and  to  manipulate  the 
fetus.  In  case  the  cow  is  lying  down,  turn  her  on  the  side 
opposite  to  that  on  which  the  limb  is  missing,  so  that  there 
may  be  more  room  to  arrange  the  fetus  or  to  bring  up  the 
missing  member. 

Do  not  attempt  to  arrange  the  fetus,  limb,  or  head,  during 
the  labor  pains,  but  wait  until  the  pain  has  ceased  and  then 
straighten  out  the  part  before  the  next  pain  comes  on.  One 
must  be  patient  and  painstaking,  remembering  that  the  fetus 


336  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

will  not  come  until  properly  arranged,  and  when  so  arranged, 
it  is  likely  to  come  fairly  easy.  The  task  is  all  the  more  difficult 
because  it  is  very  trying  on  the  arm  of  the  operator,  as  the  arm 
of  the  strongest  man  is  likely  to  become  numb  working  in  such 
positions.  If  the  passages  have  lost  their  natural  lubricating 
liquid  and  become  dry,  smear  the  interior  of  the  passages,  the 
womb,  and  the  surface  of  the  calf  as  far  as  can  be  reached  with 
fresh  lard  or  sweet  oil.  In  pulling  on  the  fetus,  draw  only 
while  the  cow  is  straining.  When  pulling,  draw  downward 
toward  the  hocks  as  well  as  backward,  as  the  natural  curvature 
of  both  fetus  and  passages  are  thus  followed  and  the  extraction 
of  the  fetus  rendered  easy.  If  the  pains  of  the  cow  are  violent 
and  long  continued,  they  may  be  checked  by  pinching  the  back 
or  by  placing  a  tight  surcingle  around  the  body  in  front  of  the 
udder.  If  the  pains  continue,  one  to  one-and-one-half  ounces  of 
chloral  hydrate  in  a  quart  of  water  may  be  given  to  check  them. 
Retained  afterbirth.  —  The  cow  of  all  farm  animals  is  especially 
subject  to  this  difficulty.  When  the  afterbirth  is  retained  it 
decomposes  and  is  discharged  as  a  yellow  or  reddish  fluid, 
having  an  extremely  offensive  odor.  This  discharge  is  most 
apparent  when  the  cow  is  lying  down  and  while  she  ruminates. 
The  rear  parts  of  the  cow,  rump,  tail,  and  vulva  are  soiled  by  the 
discharge,  which  often  contains  lumps  of  decomposing  material. 
To  avoid  this,  the  afterbirth  should  be  removed  within  twenty- 
four  or  thirty-six  hours  after  calving.  To  do  this,  a  simple 
method  which  is  often  effective  is  to  hang  a  small  weight,  not 
to  exceed  one  or  two  pounds,  to  the  hanging  portion  of  the  after- 
birth and  allow  this  by  its  constant  dragging  and  by  its  jerking 
effect  as  the  cow  moves  along  to  pull  the  membranes  from  their 
attachments  and  to  stimulate  the  womb  to  expulsive  contrac- 
tions. In  neglected  cases  when  the  hanging  mass  is  already 
badly  decomposed  this  cannot  be  done,  as  the  membrane  is 
liable  to  tear  under  the  added  weight,  leaving  a  part  of  the 
material  in  the  womb.     If  the  bowels  are  constipated,  a  physic 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE 


337 


consisting  of  one  ounce  of  ginger  given  with  a  quart  of  sweet  oil 
will  prove  advantageous.  If  the  afterbirth  remains,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  remove  the  membrane  by  hand.  This  should  be  done 
within  twenty-four  hours  after  calving,  since  the  mouth  of  the 
womb  may  be  so  closed  that  it  becomes  difficult  to  introduce 
the  hand.  The  operator  had  better  dress  as  suggested  for  diffi- 
cult parturition  (p.  334).  The  arm  should  also  be  greased  as 
suggested  for  that  operation,  as  otherwise  the  operator  may 
become  infected  from  the  decaying  membrane.     It  is* a  good 


Fig.  101.  —  Red  Polled  Herd.     Owned  by  Frank  Hartlin,  Strasburg,  Ohio. 


plan  to  wind  the  free  portion  of  the  hanging  membrane  around 
a  small  stick  and  roll  up  until  it  reaches  the  vulva.  An  assistant 
should  hold  the  tail  and  membrane  to  one  side  while  the  operator 
introduces  the  greased  arm  which  he  passes  along  until  the  places 
of  attachment  are  reached.  These  places  of  attachment  will 
be  found  to  resemble  mushroom-shaped  bodies  and  are  detached 
one  by  one  by  pushing  the  hand  between  the  membrane  and 
the  womb  and  slipping  the  membrane  from  the  heads  of  these 
bodies,  taking  care  not  to  rupture  the  womb.  As  the  membrane 
is  released,  the  assistant  should  keep  rolling  it  up  on  the  stick. 


338  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

After  the  whole  membrane  is  removed,  it  may  be  well  to  disin- 
fect the  womb  with  a  two  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

Eversion  of  the  womb.  —  This  ailment  is  commonly  called 
"casting  the  wethers,"  and  is  rather  common  among  cattle. 
It  often  follows  difficult  parturition,  the  cow  continuing  to 
strain  until  the  womb  is  forced  out  and  hangs  in  a  large  mass 
from  the  vulva.  The  womb  can  be  instantly  recognized  from 
the  other  membranes  by  the  presence  of  the  mushroom-shaped 
bodies,  each  two  to  three  inches  in  diameter  and  attached  by 
a  narrow  neck.  There  are  a  large  number  of  these  bodies,  fifty 
to  one  hundred. 

The  displaced  womb  should  be  carefully  washed  with  cold 
water  containing  a  one  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  The 
cold  is  useful  to  drive  out  the  blood  and  reduce  the  bulk.  Now 
with  the  closed  fist  planted  in  the  rounded  end  of  the  largest 
horn  of  the  womb,  push  back  so  as  to  reinvert  the  womb  into 
place.  This  must  be  done  gradually.  The  cow  will  strain 
while  this  is  being  done,  but  the  womb  is  to  be  firmly  held  until 
the  straining  is  over.  This  straining  may  be  overcome  in  part 
by  pinching  on  the  back. 

The  holding  of  the  womb  in  place  is  the  next  point.  This  is 
perhaps  best  accomplished  by  the  use  of  a  rope  truss.  This 
truss  can  be  made  from  a  long  one  inch  rope.  Double  the  long 
rope  at  its  middle  and  place  over  the  neck  of  the  cow;  bring  the 
ends,  one  on  either  side  of  the  neck,  down  between  the  fore  legs, 
twist  them  together  to  make  firm,  carry  back  between  the  hind 
legs  and  up  to  the  vulva,  here  cross  them  and  tie  firmly  with 
a  string,  then,  just  before  the  tail  is  reached,  cross  back  and  tie 
firmly,  thus  making  a  ring  which  when  drawn  tight  will  press 
the  vulva ;  then  carry  the  ropes  forward  along  the  back  and  tie 
into  the  middle  of  the  rope  at  the  top  of  the  neck.  The  rope 
should  be  drawn  so  tight  that  the  rope  ring  is  made  to  press 
firmly  all  around  the  vulva. 

Milk-fever.  —  This    disease   is    also    known   as    parturition 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  339 

apoplexy  and  parturition  fever.  There  is,  however,  very  little  if 
any  fever  connected  with  the  disease,  as  temperature  is  usually 
below  normal.  High-producing,  fleshy,  aged  cows  that  have 
been  closely  confined  are  likely  to  be  attacked.  In  fact,  the  best 
and  heaviest  milkers  are  most  subject  to  the  disease.  It  is 
more  likely  to  occur  when  the  birth  has  been  comparatively 
easy  and  quick,  and  from  one  to  ten  days  after  calving.  There 
is  a  sudden  dullness,  hanging  back  in  the  stall,  drooping  of  the 
head,  uneasy  movement  of  the  hind  limbs,  unsteady  steps;  and 
the  cow  staggers,  lies,  or  falls  down  and  is  unable  to  rise.  At 
this  time  there  may  be  some  temperature.  At  first  the  cow  lies 
with  her  head  turned  around  with  nose  resting  on  the  right 
flank;  later  she  may  stretch  full  on  her  side.  She  soon  becomes 
unconscious,  the  eyes  are  glazed,  their  pupils  widely  dilated  and 
their  lids  not  movable  when  the  ball  of  the  eye  is  touched  with 
the  finger.  Treatment  must  follow  quickly  or  she  will  soon 
expire. 

While  this  disease  was  formerly  considered  very  fatal,  with 
the  air-treatment  it  is  seldom  so.  This  air-treatment  consists 
simply  of  injecting  air  into  the  udder  and  carefully  kneading 
the  udder  at  the  same  time.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  air 
be  sterile.  There  are  Schmidt-Kolding  sterile-air  milk-fever 
outfits  on  the  market  with  which  to  force  the  air  into  the  udder, 
yet  if  one  of  these  is  not  near  at  hand,  a  very  convenient  ap- 
paratus can  be  made  from  a  common  bicycle  air-pump  and  a 
milk-tube.  In  fact,  this  simple  apparatus  will  prove  as  efficient 
as  any.  Attach  the  milk-tube  to  the  pump,  insert  the  tube 
into  the  teat  and  as  the  air  is  pumped  in,  knead  the  udder  well. 
In  two  hours  milk  the  air  out,  rest  a  few  minutes,  and  pump  up 
again.  This  may  be  repeated  every  two  hours  until  the  animal 
is  relieved.  If  the  animal  is  badly  bloated,  puncture  the  paunch 
in  the  left  loin  with  a  canula  and  trocar  as  suggested  for  bloating 
(page  351).  This  treatment  should  be  pursued  while  there  is 
life,  irrespective  of  how  low  the  cow  may  seem.     Do  not  let  the 


340  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

cow  die.  In  case  the  milk-tube  is  not  at  hand,  use  a  medicine 
dropper  to  get  the  air  into  the  udder.  If  the  canula  and  trocar 
are  not  at  hand,  stick  a  knife  into  the  paunch.  This  is  recom- 
mended only  in  the  absence  of  something  better.  Many  a  cow 
has  been  saved  by  these  crude  methods. 

Garget  is  perhaps  one  of  the  principal  forms  of  mammitis,  of 
which  caked-udder  is  a  second.  The  udcler  often  becomes  highly 
inflamed  soon  after  the  young  is  born,  and  occasionally  before 
when  the  glands  are  active,  congested  with  blood,  and  the  udder 
over-distended  with  milk.  In  addition  to  this,  inflammation  of 
the  udder  is  often  due  to  mechanical  injuries  such  as  blows, 
kicks,  scratches,  and  being  horned  by  other  cows;  and  especially 
by  germs  entering  the  udder. 

The  treatment  is  to  relieve  the  congestion  by  drawing  the 
milk  frequently.  This  should  be  done  before  calving  if  the  udder 
is  distended.  After  the  milk  is  drawn  gently  but  thoroughly, 
rub  the  udder.  Bathe  the  parts  with  hot  water  for  fifteen  min- 
utes at  a  time,  rub  dry,  and  apply  an  ointment  made  as  follows  : 
Dissolve  two  tablespoonfuls  of  gum  camphor  in  a  teacupful 
of  melted  fresh  lard.  This  can  be  greatly  improved  by  the 
addition  of  one  ounce  of  the  fluid  extract  of  belladonna.  The 
udder  should  be  bathed  three  times  daily  and  the  ointment  well 
rubbed  in.  It  is  often  advantageous  to  support  the  udder  by 
the  use  of  a  wide  piece  of  cloth  with  holes  cut  for  the  teats  and 
this  held  in  place  by  arranging  a  band  over  the  back.  When 
the  trouble  is  due  to  germs  entering  the  udder,  a  two  per  cent 
solution  of  carbolic  acid  should  be  injected  into  the  udder;  leave 
this  in  ten  to  fifteen  minutes;  milk  out  and  bathe  as  before. 
This  solution  may  be  injected  by  fastening  a  milk-tube  on  a 
syringe  with  a  small  rubber  tube. 

ILLS    OF   THE    YOUNG    CALF 

The  young  calf,  even  though  it  establishes  the  function 
of  respiration  and  gets  its  first  meal  without  difficulty,  is  still 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  341 

subject  to  many  ills,  chief  of  which  are  digestive  disorders  of 
some  kind.  These  digestive  defects  are  likely  to  be  more 
numerous  among  dairy  calves  or  those  that  are  weaned  while 
young  and  fed  from  the  pail.  This  is  often  due  to  the  difficulty 
in  keeping  the  conditions  just  right:  the  milk  may  get  cold,  the 
pails  may  be  unclean,  the  calf  may  drink  too  fast,  and  many 
other  irregularities. 

Constipation.  —  Notwithstanding  the  purgative  effects  of 
the  colostrum  or  first  milk,  the  young  calf  occasionally  suffers 
from  constipation,  especially  if  the  cow  has  not  been  in  good 
thrift,  or  has  been  fed  on  dry  innutritious  foods  during  the 
latter  periods  of  pregnancy.  Whatever  the  cause,  if  the  calf  is 
costive,  straining  violently  without  passing  dung,  lying  down 
and  rising  at  once  as  in  colic,  and  failing  in  appetite,  no  time 
should  be  lost  in  giving  relief.  First  remove  the  cause,  if  it  can 
be  located.  The  bowels  will  ordinarily  be  stimulated  to  action 
by  administering  one  to  two  ounces  of  olive  or  castor  oil.  An 
injection  of  warm  water  into  the  bowels  will  prove  helpful. 
The  water  should  be  at  blood  heat  and  have  added  to  it  a  little 
glycerine,  —  a  teaspoonful  of  glycerine  and  two  or  three  ounces 
of  water.  It  is  not  advisable  to  inject  too  much,  or  to  use  soap 
suds  as  is  often  done.  Inject  gently  into  the  rectum  with  a 
common  hard  rubber  syringe,  taking  extra  care  not  to  rupture 
the  tender  membrane.  This  will  induce  the  calf  to  try  to  pass 
the  fecal  matter  and  in  addition  will  lubricate  the  passage. 
The  injection  may  be  repeated  every  hour. 

Diarrhea  or  scours.  —  This  disease  is  prevalent  among  calves 
and  occurs  in  two  forms:  simple;  and  contagious  or  "white 
scour."  The  causes  of  simple  diarrhea  are  many  and  varied; 
bad  food,  over-feeding,  and  too  rapid  feeding  are  the  most 
common.  The  surroundings  of  the  calf  often  bring  on  the  dis- 
ease. Calves  kept  indoors  are  more  liable  to  attacks  than  those 
in  the  open  air  and  having  exercise,  pure  air,  and  sunshine. 
Closely  crowded,  filthy,  foul  smelling  buildings  are  likely  to 


342  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

bring  on  an  attack.  Whatever  the  cause,  it  should  be  removed 
and  the  case  treated  at  once,  as  the  calf  is  not  likely  to  live  long 
if  the  diarrhea  continues.  Perhaps  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to 
reduce  the  feed  from  one-half  to  two-thirds.  In  treating,  one 
must  keep  in  mind  the  nature  of  the  disease,  that  it  is  caused  by 
an  irritant  in  the  stomach  or  bowels  which  must  be  removed 
before  a  cure  can  be  effected.  For  this  reason  one  should  be 
cautious  about  giving  an  astringent  with  a  view  to  cutting  off 
the  discharge.  The  best  policy  in  all  such  diseases  is  to  expel 
the  disturber  with  a  laxative,  such  as  one  to  two  ounces  of  castor 
oil.  Later  when  the  irritant  has  been  removed  by  the  oil,  check 
the  discharge  by  a  weak  solution  of  gum  arabic,  or  by  adding  a 
little  lime  water,  not  to  exceed  one-third  to  the  milk  each  meal, 
or  by  adding  parched  flour  to  boiled  milk,  or  by  the  essence  of 
Jamaica  ginger  well  diluted  with  hot  water,  and  in  persistent 
cases  by  the  use  of  such  astringent  as  oak  bark  tea,  which  is 
made  by  stripping  the  inner  bark  of  white  oak. 

White  scour  is  a  violent  and  deadly  form  of  diarrhea,  frequently 
attacking  young  calves.  This  may  appear  immediately  after 
birth  and  is  likely  to  show  itself  within  the  first  or  second  day. 
It  often  occurs  as  a  contagious  disease,  attacking  all  the  calves 
that  are  dropped  in  the  stable  for  some  time.  For  this  reason 
it  is  often  called  "  contagious  scours."  The  disease  is  caused 
by  a  germ  that  enters  in  most  cases  through  the  navel.  The 
calf  appears  dull  and  weak,  the  eyes  are  sunken,  the  belly 
retracted,  the  breathing  is  short  and  rapid,  the  temperature 
very  low,  and  the  calf  soon  becomes  unconscious.  The  dis- 
charge from  the  bowels  is  rather  profuse,  of  a  yellowish  white 
color  and  very  offensive  odor.  As  a  rule  the  calf  dies  within 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours. 

As  there  seems  to  be  no  treatment,  we  must  rely  on  pre- 
vention. A  week  before  calving  the  pregnant  cow  should  be 
placed  in  comfortable  quarters  where  no  sick  calves  have  been 
confined.     This  seems  to  be  the  only  safe  course,  for  after  the 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  343 

disease  breaks  out  in  a  stable,  often  the  most  thorough  disinfect- 
ing fails  to  stop  future  calves  from  infection.  As  soon  as  the 
calf  is  dropped,  the  cord  should  be  tied  close  to  the  navel  and 
the  parts  thoroughly  wet  with  a  twenty  per  cent  solution  of 
carbolic  acid,  or  better  still,  with  a  solution  of  the  tincture  of 
iodine.  Fresh  milk,  diluted  with  lime  water,  not  to  exceed  one- 
third,  in  which  a  teaspoonful  of  dried  blood  has  been  dissolved, 
should  be  given  the  calf  in  small  quantities  and  at  frequent  in- 
tervals. The  stable  in  which  the  first  attack  occurred  should  be 
thoroughly  disinfected,  and  to  do  this  perhaps  nothing  is  better 
than  corrosive  sublimate;  however,  if  this  seems  undesirable 
and  ordinarily  disinfectants  are  used,  they  should  be  used  strong 
and  flushed  into  every  nook  and  corner  of  the  stable. 

TUBERCULOSIS 

Perhaps  no  disease  to  which  cattle  are  subject  is  more  dis- 
cussed than  tuberculosis.  This  is  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the 
use  of  cattle  to  provide  food  for  the  human  race.  There  are 
perhaps  few  diseases  so  common  among  cattle  as  tuberculosis, 
particularly  among  those  animals  that  are  kept  closely  confined. 

Tuberculosis  is  a  communicable  germ  disease,  and  is,  therefore, 
preventable.  The  disease  is  caused  by  a  small  germ  or  bac- 
terium known  as  Bacillus  tuberculosis.  This  germ  is,  of  course, 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 

Methods  of  injection.  —  As  tuberculosis  is  a  communicable 
germ  disease,  the  methods  of  infection  should  receive  much  at- 
tention. This  can  be  made  clear  by  considering  from  two  points 
of  view:  first,  how  the  small  germs  escape  from  diseased  ani- 
mals; and  second,  how  sound  animals  become  infected.  All 
diseased  animals  possess  the  germ.  This  germ  escapes  when 
the  tissues  it  has  destroyed  are  being  discharged  from  the 
body.  Thus,  if  the  lungs  are  affected,  the  animal  on  coughing 
dislodges  the  germs,  which  may  be  forced  directly  out  of  the  body 
or  lodged  in  the  mouth,  when  they  leave  the  body  with  the  saliva. 


344  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

In  the  cases  in  which  the  germs  are  found  in  the  saliva  they  are 
left  in  the  watering  troughs,  on  the  bottom  of  the  mangers,  on 
the  grass,  on  other  animals  when  licked  by  diseased  ones,  and 
in  fact  spread  wherever  the  diseased  animal  goes.  If  the  dis- 
ease happens  to  be  in  the  glands  of  the  intestinal  walls,  the  germ 


Fig.   102.  —  Devon   Bull  "Darks    Majesty."       Owned   by  Stockwell    and 

Gifford,  Sutton,  Mass. 

The  Devon  cattle  originated  in  the  counties  of  Devon  and  Somerset,  England. 
They  are  variously  classified,  sometimes  as  beef  cattle,  at  other  times  as  dual- 
purpose  animals.  They  tend  more  toward  beef  than  milk.  The  animals  are 
symmetrical  and  trim.  In  size  the  bulls  weigh  from  1500  to  2000  pounds,  the 
cows  from  1300  to  1500  pounds.  The  color  is  red,  although  the  shade  is 
often  light. 

escapes  with  the  dung.  If  the  glands  of  the  udder  are  diseased, 
the  germ  passes  out  with  the  milk.  If  the  disease  is  located 
in  the  glands  of  the  skin,  the  germs  may  escape  through  the 
openings  of  the  skin. 

When  the  germs  have  escaped  into  the  watering  troughs, 
mangers,  on  the  grass,  and  the  like,  they  are  readily  taken  up  by 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  345 

healthy  cattle.  In  case  the  germs  escape  in  the  milk,  whatever 
feeds  upon  it  is  liable  to  infection.  The  length  of  time  that 
will  pass  after  infection  and  before  the  disease  visibly  appears 
varies  widely,  even  to  months  or  years.  The  length  of  time 
the  animal  may  possess  the  disease  varies  equally  as  much. 
With  some  it  may  prove  fatal  in  a  few  months;  others  may 
carry  it  for  years. 

The  tuberculin  test.  —  Often  it  is  not  possible  to  tell  by  a  phys- 
ical examination  which  animals  are  infected  with  tuberculosis 
and  which  are  not.  The  most  accurate  means  of  detecting  the 
disease  in  cattle  is  by  noting  the  temperature  of  the  animal 
following  the  injection  of  a  small  amount  of  tuberculin  be- 
neath the  skin.  The  tuberculin  is  prepared  by  sterilizing, 
filtering,  and  concentrating  the  liquids  in  which  the  tubercle 
bacillus  has  been  allowed  to  grow.  It  contains  the  cooked 
products  of  the  growth  of  these  germs,  but  not  the  germs  them- 
selves. Hence  when  this  liquid  is  injected  under  the  skin  of 
cattle,  it  is  absolutely  unable  to  produce  the  disease,  but  it  sets 
up  a  characteristic  reaction  or  symptoms. 

Any  intelligent  owner  of  cattle,  who  will  make  a  little  effort 
to  familiarize  himself  with  the  test  and  its  limitations,  can  use 
it  on  his  own  cattle  with  safe  results.  It  does  not  require 
the  trained  veterinarian.  The  operator  must,  however,  be 
familiar  with  the  method,  be  very  careful,  painstaking,  and 
patient. 

The  testing  outfit.  —  The  testing  outfit  consists  of  five  things: 
(1)  tuberculin,  (2)  syringe,  (3)  thermometer,  (4)  disinfectant, 
(5)  vaseline. 

1.  Tuberculin.  —  Tuberculin  can  be  procured  from  the  ex- 
periment stations  in  the  various  states.  If  the  Experiment 
Station  fails  to  provide  it,  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  can  tell  where  to  secure  it. 

2.  Syringe.  —  A  hypodermic  syringe  of  6  c.c.  to  10  c.c. 
capacity,  such  as   is  commonly  used  to  inject  liquid  vaccine,  is 


346  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

necessary.     This  syringe  should  be  provided  with  short,  stout 
needles,  well  reenforced  at  the  base. 

Any  druggist  will  procure  the  syringe  and  needles  and  show 
how  to  use  them. 

3.  Thermometer.  —  A  guaranteed  clinical  thermometer  is 
necessary.  If  a  large  number  of  animals  is  to  be  tested,  it  will 
facilitate  matters  to  provide  two  or  three  thermometers.  Any 
druggist  will  provide  a  thermometer  and  show  how  to  adjust 
or  shake  down  and  how  to  read  it.  A  string  should  be  tied 
around  the  thermometer,  at  the  other  end  of  which  should  be 
fastened  a  wire  hook,  or  a  small  bull-dog  clamp.  After  inserting 
the  thermometer  in  the  rectum,  the  clamp  or  wire  hook  is  fastened 
to  the  long  hairs  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  or  the  wire  wound  around 
the  tail  so  that  if  the  thermometer  is  thrown  out,  it  will  not  be 
broken  by  dropping  to  the  ground.  Cows  are  likely  to  void  dung 
soon  after  the  insertion  of  the  thermometer,  and  unless  this 
precaution  is  taken,  the  thermometer  is  very  likely  to  drop  to  the 
floor  before  many  temperatures  are  taken. 

4.  Disinfectant.  —  A  small  bottle  of  strong  carbolic  acid 
(95  per  cent) ,  to  be  used  in  disinfecting  the  syringe  before  begin- 
ning the  test  and  to  disinfect  the  needle-point  before  injecting 
each  animal,  is  essential.  This  can  be  procured  at  any  drug 
store. 

5.  Vaseline.  —  A  small  can  of  vaseline  or  lard  should  be  pro- 
vided to  grease  the  thermometer  before  insertion.  A  vaseline 
jar  also  affords  a  safe  and  convenient  place  to  keep  the  ther- 
mometer between  times  of  taking  temperature. 

Directions  for  making  the  tuberculin  test.  —  While  making  the 
test  is  not  difficult  (in  fact  easier  done  that  told),  one  should 
be  exceedingly  careful,  going  about  the  work  methodically 
and  keeping  everything  neat  and  clean.  The  test  may  be 
divided  for  convenience  into  five  essential  parts:  (1)  keep- 
ing records,  (2)  taking  the  normal  temperature,  one  day, 
(3)  injecting  the  tuberculin  same  day,  (4)  taking  temperature 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  347 

after  injection,  second  day,  (5)  interpretation  of  the  tempera- 
ture records. 

It  is  very  essential  that  the  animals  be  well  known  or  num- 
bered, for  in  no  case  should  they  get  mixed.  It  is  not  advisable 
for  the  beginner  to  attempt  to  test  more  than  twenty  animals 
at  one  time. 

Cattle  suffering  from  such  diseases  as  garget,  retained 
afterbirth,  and  the  like,  or  those  that  are  in  heat  or  far  along  in 
pregnancy,  should  not  be  tested. 

1.  Keeping  records.  — An  accurate  record  of  each  tempera- 
ture must  be  kept.  To  do  this  procure  a  large  sheet  of  paper, 
writing  the  names  or  number  of  each  animal  down  the  left  side, 
and  the  hour  at  which  the  temperature  is  taken  across  the  top. 
As  each  temperature  is  taken,  record  it  under  the  hour  and  op- 
posite the  name. 

2.  Taking  the  normal  temperature.  —  On  account  of  the 
variation  in  temperature  it  is  essential  to  take  the  temperature 
of  each  animal  at  intervals  of  two  hours  until  at  least  four 
temperatures  are  taken,  before  the  tuberculin  is  injected.  These 
temperatures  must  be  carefully  recorded  to  compare  with  the 
temperatures  of  the  same  cow  after  injection.  After  becoming 
familiar  with  the  method  of  reading  the  thermometer,  shake  it 
down,  smear  it  with  vaseline  and  insert  full  length  into  the  rec- 
tum. Attach  the  thermometer  to  the  base  of  the  tail  by  means 
of  the  clamp  of  wire,  and  allow  to  remain  in  the  rectum  for  three 
minutes.  Withdraw  the  thermometer,  read  the  temperature, 
record  on  the  sheet  at  once,  shake  the  thermometer  down,  and 
proceed  as  before. 

Because  of  the  ease  with  which  variations  in  temperature 
are  caused,  it  is  important  to  keep  the  animals  that  are  being- 
tested  under  normal  conditions.  They  should  be  fed,  watered, 
and  milked  as  usual. 

3.  Injecting  the  tuberculin.  —  This  is  preferably  done  in  the 
evening,  say  eight  hours  before  the  time  of  milking  in  the  morn- 


348  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

ing.  For  example,  if  the  cows  are  milked  at  6  a.m.,  inject  the 
tuberculin  at  10  p.m.  The  syringe  should  be  disinfected  by 
drawing  it  full  of  carbolic  acid,  emptying  it,  and  then  rinsing  in 
boiling  water  before  beginning  the  injection.  In  addition  to 
this,  just  before  injecting  each  animal,  dip  the  needle  in  strong 
carbolic  acid  to  disinfect  it.  Carefully  fill  the  syringe  through 
the  needle  from  the  bottle  of  tuberculin.  Set  the  burr  on  the  pis- 
ton-rod of  the  syringe  so  that  not  more  than  the  dose  intended 
can  be  injected.  The  druggist  will  show  how  this  is  done  when 
the  syringe  is  purchased.  The  size  of  the  dose  will  be  stated  on 
the  tuberculin  bottle.  With  the  cow  restrained  in  a  stanchion, 
or  tied  short  in  a  stall,  take  hold  of  the  skin  with  the  left  hand 
along  the  side  of  the  neck  where  it  is  thin  and  loose  and  with  the 
syringe  in  the  right  hand  quickly  insert  the  point  in  the 
pocket  thus  formed  and  inject  the  dose.  Occasionally  some 
force  is  needed  to  insert  the  needle  into  the  skin.  Before  in- 
jecting another  cow,  see  that  the  syringe  is  working  properly 
and  the  needle  is  in  good  shape. 

4.  Taking  temperature  after  injection.  —  Begin  taking  tem- 
peratures eight  hours  after  the  injection  of  the  tuberculin  and 
continue  every  two  hours  until  six  temperatures  are  taken,  and 
continue  those  cases  showing  a  rise  in  temperature.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  tuberculin  was  injected  at  10  p.m.,  begin  taking 
temperatures  at  6  a.m.,  then  at  8  a.m.,  10  a.m.,  12  m., 
2  p.m.,  and  4  p.m.,  and  make  a  careful  record  of  each 
temperature  as  taken.  When  an  animal  shows  a  rise  above  103, 
it  is  well  to  take  the  temperatures  at  more  frequent  intervals. 

5.  Interpretation  of  the  temperature  records.  —  The  tem- 
peratures after  injecting  the  tuberculin  must  be  carefully  studied 
and  compared  with  those  taken  the  day  before.  In  typical 
cases  of  tuberculosis,  an  elevation  of  temperature  usually  comes 
on  gradually,  although  in  the  more  pronounced  reactions,  when 
the  temperature  goes  above  105.5  degrees,  the  rise  is  often  rapid. 
This  elevation  usually  occurs  between  the  eighth  and  sixteenth 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  349 

hours  after  injection.  It  should  remain  practically  at  a  maxi- 
mum for  two  hours  or  more  and  gradually  subside.  When  it 
reaches  104  degrees  or  more  and  is  maintained  for  some  hours, 
the  animal  is  regarded  as  tubercular,  if  no  fever  was  shown 
before  the  injection.  Sudden  rises  for  a  short  time  only  do  not 
indicate  a  reaction.  The  rises  of  less  than  1.5  degrees  do  not 
indicate  a  reaction.  In  all  cases  of  doubt,  the  animal  should  be 
separated  from  the  herd  and  retested  not  sooner  than  four  to  six 
weeks  (the  test  will  not  give  reaction  under  this  time). 

Retesting.  — A  single  test  of  a  diseased  herd  cannot  be  relied 
upon  to  detect  every  tuberculous  animal.  If  animals  are  found 
by  the  first  test  to  be  affected,  they  should  be  tested  again  in  four 
to  six  weeks.  Even  in  those  herds  in  which  no  reacting  animals 
are  found,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  test  once  each  year. 

Tuberculin  not  infallible.  —  While  tuberculin  is  the  best 
method  known  for  detecting  tuberculosis,  it  is  not  infallible.  On 
the  average  if  properly  handled,  it  will  detect  97  per  cent  of  the 
cases.  In  some  cases,  especially  when  the  animals  are  badly 
diseased,  it  fails  to  react,  and  in  a  very  few  cases  it  seems  to  cause 
a  rise  of  temperature  in  healthy  animals. 

Prevention  of  tuberculosis.  — In  the  beginning  of  this  discussion 
it  was  stated  that  tuberculosis  is  a  communicable  germ  dis- 
ease, and  therefore  preventable.  In  order  to  prevent,  infected 
animals  must  not  be  brought  into  healthy  herds,  for  as  we  have 
observed  diseased  animals  spread  the  infection  wherever  they  go. 
Much  space  has  been  given  to  methods  of  locating  the  disease  in 
order  that  those  herds  already  free  may  not  be  infected  by  the 
addition  of  an  infected  animal.  If  a  herd  is  known  to  be  healthy, 
never  bring  a  new  animal  into  the  herd  until  it  has  been  tested, 
and  if  there  is  the  slightest  doubt  about  its  being  tubercular,  it 
should  be  excluded. 

If  in  addition  to  the  tuberculin  test  and  the  exclusion  of  all 
diseased  animals,  the  quarters  where  the  cattle  are  kept  are  well 
ventilated,  and  well  lighted,  admitting  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun, 


350  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  chance  of  the  herd's  being  infected  is  very  slight.  Since  the 
trouble  and  expense  of  making  the  test  are  so  slight,  it  is  well 
worth  while  to  make  it  in  order  to  have  the  assurance  that  the 
herd  is  entirely  free  and  there  is  absolutely  no  danger  in  the  con- 
sumption of  their  products,  either  milk  or  meat. 

Eradication  of  tuberculosis.  —  The  eradication  of  tuberculosis, 
once  it  gets  a  foothold,  is  not  so  easy  or  at  least  not  so  inexpen- 
sive. There  is  of  course  no  cure  for  the  disease,  so  other  methods 
of  eradication  must  be  sought.  It  has  been  suggested  that  all 
diseased  animals  be  slaughtered,  but  this  would  mean  untold 
waste  and  were  it  enforced,  might  lead  to  a  national  calamity, 
for  it  is  doubtful  if  the  nation  could  spare  all  of  its  tubercular 
cattle  at  one  time.  There  is  one  plan,  however,  which,  if  it  could 
be  employed,  would  seem  to  bridge  the  difficulty  and  in  a  few 
generations  would  result  in  bovine  tuberculosis  being  practically 
swept  from  the  land.  This  plan,  however,  requires  extra 
labor,  as  well  as  the  expense  of  extra  equipment,  and  its  em- 
ployment is  purely  economical;  but  since,  from  the  nature  of 
the  disease  and  the  importance  of  the  animals  concerned,  it 
seems  to  be  the  only  avenue  of  hope,  the  plan  is  here  given. 

The  Bang  method  of  eradicating  bovine  tuberculosis.  —  This 
method,  recommended  by  Dr.  Bang  of  the  Copenhagen  Veteri- 
nary College,  is  being  successfully  employed  in  Denmark.  The 
object  of  the  method  is  to  replenish  a  tuberculous  herd  with  as 
little  loss  as  possible.  The  original  method  has  been  modified 
from  time  to  time  and  at  present  stands  thus :  Immediately 
after  testing  the  herd  divide  it  into  two  parts,  placing  the  sound 
animals  in  one  and  the  diseased  animals  in  the  other,  thus  mak- 
ing two  herds,  one  diseased,  the  other  sound.  At  once  remove 
the  sound  herd  to  new  and  uninfected  quarters,  and  keep  it 
away  from  the  infection.  The  difficulty  of  this  is  that  it  means 
two  sets  of  equipment, barn,  lots,  pastures, and  the  like;  for  if  the 
plan  is  to  succeed,  the  sound  herd  must  be  kept  entirely  away 
from  the  infected  barn,  lots,  and  pastures.   They  must  even  have 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  351 

different  care  takers.  Since  calves  at  birth  are  free  from  tubercu- 
losis, those  from  the  diseased  herd  may  be  put  with  those  from 
the  sound  herd.  No  animals  should  be  admitted  to  the  sound 
herd  without  first  being  tested  and  the  sound  herd  itself  should 
be  tested  once  each  year,  and  if  any  animals  react,  they  are  to  be 
put  with  the  diseased  herd  and  the  stable  thoroughly  disin- 
fected with  corrosive  sublimate. 

If  dairy  cattle,  the  milk  from  the  tuberculous  herd  must  be 
handled  in  entirely  separate  utensils  and  pasteurized  at  185°  F., 
after  which  it  is  considered  harmless  both  for  stock  and  human 
food. 

This  method,  though  it  involves  much  expense,  seems  to  be 
the  only  feasible  one  for  the  eradication  of  bovine  tuberculosis. 
It  is  being  successfully  conducted  on  several  farms  in  this  coun- 
try at  the  present  time.  The  painstaking  and  careful  cattle 
owner  can  eradicate  tuberculosis  from  his  herd  in  a  very  few 
years  by  the  Bang  method,  or  some  modification,  if  he  so  desires. 

BLOATING    IN    CATTLE 

Bloating,  or  "hoven,"  is  the  distention  of  the  paunch  or 
rumen  with  gas.  It  is  liable  to  occur  when  cattle  are  first 
turned  to  young  clover  or  alfalfa,  especially  if  the  growth  is 
rank,  as  they  eat  it  so  greedily  that  gas  formation  results. 
Turnips,  potatoes,  and  cabbage  may  likewise  set  up  fermenta- 
tion, which  proceeds  rapidly;  the  gas  does  not  escape,  and 
soon  the  rumen  becomes  distended  to  a  large  size.  Bloating 
is  easily  recognized  by  the  distension  of  the  rumen,  particu- 
larly on  the  left  side,  that  part  bulging  outward  and  upward 
very  noticeably,  and  when  struck  with  the  tips  of  the  fingers, 
giving  a  drum-like  sound.  Breathing  is  very  difficult,  the  animal 
reels,  and  soon  may  lie  down  or  fall. 

The  treatment  varies  according  to  the  severity  of  the  case.  In 
mild  attacks,  driving  the  animal  at  a  walk  often  gives  relief,  or 
dashing  cold  water  by  the  bucketful  against  the  sides  may  suffice. 


352  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

If  the  animal  is  bad,  it  may  be  necessary  to  put  a  gag  in  the 
mouth  as  follows :  Take  a  piece  of  inch  rope,  smear  it  with  pine 
tar,  wagon  grease,  or  other  unsavory  substance,  place  it  in  the 
animal's  mouth  as  a  bit,  and  fasten  by  tying  around  the  horns ; 
or,  take  a  stick  the  size  of  a  fork  handle  and  eight  or  ten  inches 
long,  place  this  in  the  mouth  as  a  bit  and  secure  with  a  string  by 
tying  around  the  head.  It  will  try  to  dislodge  these  objects  by 
movements  of  the  tongue,  jaws,  and  throat,  thus  stimulating  the 
secretion  of  saliva  and  swallowing,  which  opens  the  esophagus 
and  permits  the  gas  to  escape.     At  this  time  a  little  salt  thrown 


Fig.  103.  —  Devon  Herd;  "Sally"  in  the  Center,  her  Two-year-old 
Bull  Calf  to  the  Right,  and  her  Yearling  Calf  to  the  Left.  Owned 
by  L.  P.  Sisson. 

into  the  mouth  often  proves  advantageous.  In  severe  cases,  how- 
ever, the  gas  must  be  allowed  to  escape  without  delay,  and  this  is 
best  accomplished  by  the  use  of  a  trocar  and  canula.  On  the  left 
side,  about  halfway  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip,  make  an  in- 
cision through  the  skin  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long  with 
a  sharp  knife ;  through  this  incision  insert  the  trocar  and  canula, 
directing  downward,  inward,  and  slightly  forward,  and  thrust 
the  point  into  the  paunch.  If  this  happens  to  be  a  fat  animal, 
it  will  be  some  distance  through,  but  thrust  it  home.  Remove 
the  trocar,  leaving  the  canula  in  place,  through  which  the  gas 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  353 

may  escape.  This  should  be  left  in  place  as  long  as  the  gas  is 
generating.  In  the  absence  of  a  trocar,  a  sharp  knife  may  be 
thrust  through  to  let  the  gas  escape.  Do  not  let  the  animal  die 
of  bloating.  Give  internally  two  ounces  of  aromatic  spirits  of 
ammonia  in  a  quart  of  cold  water.  Repeat  every  half  hour. 
Turpentine  in  two-ounce  doses  is  also  good,  but  it  must  be  well 
diluted  with  milk  to  prevent  injuring  the  animal.  After  bloat- 
ing has  subsided  give  physic;  one  pound  of  Glauber's  salt  is 
good. 

Since  there  is  danger  of  bloating  in  turning  cattle  to  luxuriant 
pasture,  especially  if  wet  with  dew,  they  should  always  be  well 
fed  and  turned  to  pasture  in  the  afternoon  when  the  grass  is  dry. 
Some  advise  taking  them  up  the  first  night,  feeding  them  well 
the  next  morning,  and  not  turning  in  pasture  again  till  after- 
noon. A  little  dry  hay  put  in  the  pasture  is  excellent  to  prevent 
bloating,  as  the  cattle  seem  to  crave  it. 

IMPACTION    OF    THE    RUMEN 

This  difficulty  often  occurs  among  cattle  and  is  due  to  the  fill- 
ing of  the  third  stomach  with  indigestible  material,  such  as  frozen 
grass,  weeds,  or  foreign  materials.  The  animal  refuses  to  eat, 
stands  with  back  slightly  arched,  breathes  rapidly,  and  may 
bloat,  though  not  always.  Often  the  mass  of  undigested  food 
can  be  felt  on  the  left  side.  The  animal  on  lying  down  usually 
lies  on  the  right  side. 

For  treatment  give  a  mild  purgative,  three-fourths  to  one 
pound  of  Epsom  salts  and  two  ounces  of  ginger  dissolved  in 
warm  water,  and  administer  in  the  form  of  a  drench.  Feed  gruels 
and  bran  mashes  if  the  animal  will  eat,  and  allow  plenty  of 
water.  To  aid  the  bowels  in  moving  one  may  give  an  injection 
of  warm  water. 

Cattle  off  feed.  —  Often  cattle  are  thrown  "off  their  feed"  by 
overfeeding,  by  irregular  feeding,  or  by  consuming  indigestible 
things  such  as  frozen  grass,  weeds,  and  perhaps  by  eating  foreign 
2  a 


354  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

matter,  particularly  if  it  be  salty.  Such  animals  are  simply  in- 
disposed, do  not  eat,  and  stand  around  with  a  dejected  look.  If 
no  attention  is  given  them,  they  may  remain  in  this  condition 
for  some  time.  This  is  to  be  avoided  if  possible,  as  animals  that 
are  not  doing  well  are  sure  to  prove  unprofitable.  The  treat- 
ment is  to  give  pound  doses  of  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  warm 
water  to  which  a  little  ginger  has  been  added.  If  they  will  eat, 
give  gruels  or  mashes,  and  allow  all  the  fresh  water  they  will 
drink. 

DEHORNING 

In  case  the  horns  were  not  removed  when  the  calf  was  small,  as 
suggested  on  page  255,  and  it  is  desired  to  remove  them  later,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  remove  them  with  either  a  saw  or  a  pair  of 
dehorning  clippers.  The  animal  must  be  confined  in  a  chute  or 
stocks  made  for  such  purposes,  a  rope  placed  around  the  head, 
which  should  be  pulled  to  one  side  and  held  firmly  while  the  horn 
is  removed.  Whether  sawed  or  clipped,  remove  the  horn  so  close 
to  the  head  as  to  take  a  ring  of  hair  off  at  the  base  of  the  horn, 
otherwise  the  horn  will  grow  out  as  a  stub.  If  in  fly  time,  apply 
tar  to  keep  the  flies  away.  The  bleeding  will  stop  of  its  own 
accord.  The  pain  of  the  operation  is  slight,  and  whenever 
animals  are  disposed  to  be  vicious  the  horns  should  be  removed. 
It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  dehorn  when  the  flies  are  bad,  nor  should 
dehorned  animals  have  access  to  straw  or  hay  stacks  where  they 
can  get  the  chaff  into  the  wounds. 

VICES    OF    DAIRY   CATTLE 

There  are  a  few  bad  habits  or  vices  to  which  dairy  cattle  are 
subject.  They  are  often  serious  and  lessen  the  usefulness  of  the 
animal.  Most  of  them,  however,  can  be  remedied  with  a  little 
patient  effort,  or  by  the  arrangement  of  inexpensive  apparatus. 

Kicking  cow.  —  To  prevent  a  cow  from  kicking,  procure  a 
half-inch  rope  long  enough  to  reach  around  the  cow's  body  and 


DISEASES   OF    CATTLE  355 

tie  ;  place  the  rope,  with  slip  noose  on  one  end,  around  the  body 
of  the  cow,  just  in  front  of  the  udder  and  back  of  the  hip  bones. 
Draw  tight  and  tie.  Repeat  each  milking,  always  treating  the 
cow  gently.  After  a  time  one  need  only  lay  the  rope  over  the 
cow's  back.     Finally  the  rope  may  be  discarded. 

Another  method  recommended  by  some  is  to  take  a  hame  strap 
and  buckle  the  two  hind  legs  together,  but  this  is  not  efficient  as 
she  is  likely  to  get  one  leg  loose  or  throw  herself  endeavoring  to 
do  so. 

When  the  cow  is  tied  by  the  stanchion,  the  experienced  milker 
will  be  able  to  milk  almost  any  cow  by  crowding  her  over  as  far 
as  the  stanchion  will  let  her  go,  then  by  placing  his  knee  in  front 
of  her  hock  and  his  head  in  her  flank  she  is  not  likely  to  try  to 
kick  ;  in  fact  she  cannot,  if  the  milker  understands  holding  her 
in  the  proper  position. 

Sucking  cow.  —  Occasionally  a  cow  develops  the  habit  of 
either  sucking  herself  or  another  cow.  While  there  are  many 
ways  of  preventing  this,  perhaps  as  efficient  way  as  any  is  to 
procure  a  stiff  piece  of  old  leather,  say  one  and  one-half  inches 
wide  and  eight  inches  long,  drive  through  this  several  eight- 
penny  wire  nails  with  the  ends  filed  down  to  a  point  and  fasten 
to  the  nose-band  of  a  common  halter  and  place  this  halter  on  the 
sucking  cow.  With  this  she  cannot  reach  her  own  teats  or  those 
of  any  other  cow  without  injuring  the  flanks,  and  she  not  likely 
to  try  more  than  once. 


PART   THREE  — SHEEP 


CHAPTER    XVI 
CHOOSING   AND    JUDGING    SHEEP 

Familiarity  with  what  is  wanted,  powers  of  observation,  and 
good  judgment  are  equally  as  important  in  choosing  sheep  as  in 
choosing  cows  or  horses.  These  can  be  gained  only  by  careful 
study,  and  more  especially  by  practice,  as  sheep  are  often  de- 
ceptive. The  importance  of  these  faculties  cannot  be  overesti- 
mated in  the  choice  of  any  class  of  farm  animals. 

The  wool-covering  of  the  body  of  the  sheep  makes  an  examina- 
tion of  the  form  rather  difficult.  The  wool  is  often  so  trimmed 
as  to  deceive.  An  expert  trimmer,  possessing  much  skill  with 
the  shears,  can  give  a  rather  inferior  sheep  the  appearance  of  a 
plump  full  form;  thus  animals  with  sway  backs,  narrow,  flat 
ribs,  narrow,  peaked  rumps  are  often  so  trimmed  as  to  conceal 
such  defects.  To  facilitate  the  inspection  and  hasten  the  work, 
to  avoid  being  deceived  and  to  enable  the  examiner  to  discover 
all  defects,  the  following  method  of  examining  sheep  is 
suggested :  — 

After  noting  the  general  appearance,  the  age,  the  teeth, 
the  eyes,  and  the  like,  then,  with  the  open  hand,  as  shown 
in  the  illustrations  (page  369) ,  proceed  to  a  detailed  examina- 
tion. Do  not  depend  on  the  eye  alone,  but  fortify  it  with  the 
touch,  carefully  noting  each  character  as  described  under  detail 
examination  (page  368).  During  this  examination  keep  the 
fingers  and  thumb  together  and  the  hand  flat.  Never  stick  the 
fingers  into  the  wool.  When  it  is  desired  to  examine  the  wool, 
open  up  the  wool  with  the  hand  flat  (Fig.  121). 

359 


360 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Catching  and  holding  sheep.  —  There  are  two  places  to  catch 
sheep:    First,  the  hind  leg  above  the  gambel  joint;   second,  by 


Fig.  104.  —  Delaine   Merino  Ram   "Beacon."      A  prize  winner,  owned  by 
C.  Marshall,  New  London,  Ohio. 

The  Delaine  Merino  sheep  are  of  American  Merino  ancestry,  bred  mainly  by 
selecting  from  varieties  free  from  folds.  This  breed  resembles  the  American 
Merino  except  lacking  the  heavy  fold,  and  the  fleece  is  not  so  heavy.  There  are 
several  families  of  Delaines,  such  as  National,  Standard,  Dickinson,  and  Black 
Top.  Rams  shear  from  12  to  20  pounds,  the  ewes  from  8  to  15  pounds  of 
strong,  fine  wool.  In  weight  the  rams  vary  from  130  to  200  pounds,  the  ewes 
from  100  to  140  pounds.     This  breed  is  popular  in  the  United  States. 


placing  the  hand  underneath  the  jaw  and  around  the  neck.  Do 
not  catch  a  sheep  by  its  wool,  as  this  not  only  pulls  and  injures 
the  wool,  but  leaves  a  black  mark  or  bruise  on  the  body  which 


CHOOSING  AND   JUDGING   SHEEP  361 

interferes  very  much  with  the  sale  of  the  carcass  of  mutton.  If 
the  shepherd's  crook  is  used  in  catching  the  sheep,  the  aim 
should  be  to  catch  above  the  gambrel  joint,  as  there  is  danger  of 
injuring  the  leg  if  caught  below  this  joint. 

To  hold  a  sheep,  stand  on  the  left  side  and  place  the  left  hand 
under  the  animal's  jaw,  keeping  the  right  hand  free  to  place 
behind  the  sheep  in  case  it  attempts  to  move  backward.  Do 
not  attempt  to  keep  the  sheep  from  moving  backward  by  pull- 
ing on  the  head  or  the  wool,  as  either  of  these  methods  will 
be  quickly  resisted,  which  will  result  in  injury  to  the  wool  and 
carcass.  Gently  place  the  right  arm  around  back  of  the  thighs, 
and  the  sheep  will  stop  the  backward  movement  at  once.  Like- 
wise do  not  attempt  to  keep  the  animal  from  going  forward  by 
pulling  on  the  wool,  but  place  the  left  hand  gently  under 
the  jaw. 

HOW  TO  ESTIMATE  AGE  OF  SHEEP 

The  age  of  sheep  is  a  very  important  factor  in  determining 
their  present  and  prospective  value.  Familiarity  with  the 
characters  that  indicate  age  are,  therefore,  often  extremely  use- 
ful. As  in  the  case  of  the  horse  a  knowledge  of  these  characters 
is  not  difficult  to  secure,  and  skill  in  their  application  depends 
much  on  continued  practice. 

In  estimating  the  age  of  sheep  the  order  of  the  appearance 
of  the  permanent  teeth  furnishes  the  best  index,  especially  from 
one  to  four  years  of  age.  There  are,  however,  other  general 
considerations  that  aid  in  estimating  the  age,  especially  in  the 
case  of  young  and  very  old  animals.  Size  is  the  principal  factor 
in  determining  the  age  up  to  one  year.  In  very  old  animals 
the  poll  becomes  more  prominent,  the  sides  of  the  face  more 
depressed,  and  the  hollows  above  the  eyes  deeper.  With 
age  the  backbone  becomes  more  prominent  and  often  strongly 
curved  downward,  the  sheep  loses  its  plumpness,  and  in  many 
ways  shows  the  effects  of  age. 


362 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Examination  of  the  teeth.  —  While  the  order  of  the  appear- 
ance of  the  permanent  teeth  and  their  subsequent  method  of 
wearing  are  considered  the  most  accurate  means  of  estimating 
age  among  sheep,  they  are  not  absolutely  accurate  nor  are 
they  as  dependable  as  in  the  horse.  Teeth  in  sheep  vary  much 
according  to  the  conditions,  as  in  the  case  of  the  horse  (see 
page  8). 

Sheep,  like  cattle,  are  provided  with  two  sets  of  teeth ;  first, 
the  temporary  or  milk  teeth,  and,  later,  the  permanent  teeth. 
The  permanent  teeth  differ  from  the  temporary  in  their  greater 

size.  The  replacement  of  the 
temporary  teeth  by  the  perma- 
nent is  made  necessary  by  the 
increase  in  size  of  the  jawbone 
as  the  animal  becomes  older. 
As  in  the  case  of  cattle,  sheep 
have  incisor  teeth  in  the  lower 
jaw  only,  the  upper  being  pro- 
vided with  a  cartilaginous  pad. 
The  number  likewise  is  the 
same,  eight  in  either  case. 
The  lamb  is  often  born  with 
one  pair  of  milk  teeth  and  the 
others  soon  make  their  appear- 
ance. These  milk  teeth  are 
narrow  and  peg-like  in  appear- 
ance. When  the  animal  is  approximately  fifteen  months  of  age, 
the  middle  pair  of  milk  teeth  is  replaced  by  permanent  ones, 
which  are  fully  twice  as  broad  as  the  milk  teeth,  hence  easily 
recognized  (Fig.  105).  The  interval  between  the  appearance 
of  the  succeeding  pairs  varies  according  to  conditions,  but  can 
be  stated  as  approximately  eleven  months.  In  general  the  age 
of  the  animal  at  the  time  each  pair  is  up  and  in  full  wear 
may  be  estimated  as  follows :  — 


Fig. 


105.  —  Sheeps'    Teeth, 
trating  Age. 

12  months.  —  15  months. 
26  months.  —  37  months. 
4S  months.  —  8  years. 


ILLUS- 


CHOOSING   AND   JUDGING   SHEEP  363 

First  or  middle  pair  of  permanent  teeth 15  months 

Second  or  first  intermediate  pair  of  permanent  teeth    .     .  26  months 

Third  or  second  intermediate  pair  of  permanent  teeth       .  37  months 

Fourth  or  lateral  pair  of  permanent  teeth 48  months 

After  the  teeth  are  up  and  in  wear,  there  is  comparatively 
little  change  for  a  time,  but  as  the  animal  grows  older  the  teeth 
become  narrower,  and  by  the  eighth  or  ninth  year  there  is 
much  space  between  them.  They  shrink  away  from  each 
other,  become  more  or  less  discolored,  and  finally  drop  out  one 
by  one. 

TYPES    OF    SHEEP 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  sheep:  the  wool  type, 
adapted  for  the  production  of  much  wool,  and  the  mutton 
type,  adapted  for  the  production  of  meat.  These  types  are 
controlled  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  demands  made  upon 
the  body  of  the  animal.  Thus  in  the  case  of  wool  production 
as  much  skin  surface  as  possible  is  desired,  and  the  skin  is 
thrown  into  folds.  Large  wool  yields  depend  much  on  the  con- 
stitution, the  vigor,  and  the  condition  of  the  skin;  hence  much 
consideration  is  given  these  characters  in  choosing  wool  sheep. 
Likewise  much  attention  is  paid  the  skin  secretions,  which  should 
be  oily  in  appearance  This  oil  is  commonly  called  "yolk." 
The  wool  should  be  fine,  with  a  natural  bright  luster  and  a 
clean  white  color.  On  the  other  hand,  the  mutton  type  calls 
for  a  form  similar  to  that  of  beef  cattle.  The  carcass  is  the 
product,  and  a  plump  full  body  is  desired.  The  energy  of  the 
food  should  go  to  the  production  of  mutton  and  not  of  wool. 
These  two  types,  therefore,  are  of  necessity  widely  different, 
and  one  can  no  more  expect  maximum  wool  production  and 
maximum  mutton  production  in  the  same  sheep  than  he  can 
have  greatest  milk  flow  and  greatest  yield  of  beef  in  the  same 
cow. 

The  fine-ivool  type.  —  There  are  three  important  breeds  of 


364 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


fine-wool  sheep,  the  American  Merino,  the  Delaine  Merino, 
and  the  Rambouillet.  The  fine-wool,  or  Merino  and  Ram- 
bouillet  type,  may  be  compared  to  that  of  the  dairy  cow.  The 
body  is  spare,  lacking  in  fullness,  in  breadth  of  back,  and  in 
general  thickness  throughout.  The  wool  is  rather  short,  very 
thick  over  the  entire  body,  and  exceedingly  fine. 


Fig.   106.  —  Champion  Merino  Ram.     A  type.     Photograph    from   National 

Stockman  and  Farmer. 

Owing  to  the  difference  in  type,  as  shown  by  the  folds  or  wrinkles  on  the  neck 
and  over  the  body,  fine-wooled  sheep  are  divided  into  three  classes.  Class  A, 
Merino,  represents  the  class  or  type  with  very  heavy  folds ;  Class  B,  Merino, 
has  a  smoother  body  ;  Class  C,  Merino,  has  a  smooth  body  with  only  a  few  or 
no  folds  at  all  about  the  neck  and  breast. 


There  are  three  classes  of  fine-wool  sheep,  grouped  according 
to  the  folds  or  wrinkles  on  the  neck  and  body.  By  common 
consent  these  forms  are  distinguished  by  letter  as  follows : 
Class  A.  —  Merino,  representing  those  with  heavy  folds  at  the 
neck  and  over  the  body  and  hind-quarters,  and  possessing  an 


^CHOOSING  AND   JUDGING   SHEEP 


365 


Fig.  107.  —  Champion  Merino 
Ram.  B  type.  Photograph  from 
National  Stockman  and  Farmer. 


abundance  of  yolk  or  grease  (Fig.  106).     Class  B. —  Merino, 

representing  those  with  fewer  and  smaller  folds  on  neck  and 

body  and  carrying  less  yolk  in 

the  wool  (Fig.  107).     Class  C. — 

Merino,  representing  those  with 

comparatively     smooth     bodies, 

possessing  less  yolk  than   Class 

B,  though  the  wool  is,  as  a  rule, 

somewhat  longer  (Fig.  108).     Of 

the  three  classes  A    is  perhaps 

the  heaviest  shearer,  a  case  being 

reported  of  an  animal  shearing  36 

per  cent  of  his  gross  weight. 

The  mutton  type.  —  There  are  many  breeds  of  mutton  sheep, 

divided  into  two  general  groups,  known  as  the  medium-wool 

and  the  long-wool;   each,  however,  in  the  main  possesses  the 

characteristic  mutton  type. 
The  mutton  type  resembles  the 
beef  type.  The  animals  are  low- 
set,  compact,  and  blocky  in 
appearance. 

CHOOSING    SHEEP 

In  choosing  sheep,  whether 
for  the  production  of  mutton  or 
fine  wool,  they  should  be  care- 
fully examined.  It  is  essential 
that  the  examination  be  syste- 
matic. Perhaps  the  most  con- 
venient and  simplest  method  is 
to  note,  first,  the  general  ap- 
pearance, the  form,  weight,  con- 
dition, quality,  and  constitution,  and  if  these  are  satisfactory, 
to  make  a  more  detailed  examination. 


Fig.  108.  —  Delaine  Merino  Ram 
"Victor."  C  type.  First  prize 
yearling  ram  at  four  State  fairs, 
1909.  Bred  and  owned  by  W.  X. 
Cook  and  Son,  New  London,  Ohio. 


366  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


General  appearance 

By  carefully  observing  the  general  appearance  of  a  sheep, 
one  can  gain  a  fair  knowledge  of  its  desirability.  Very  often 
the  general  appearance  is  not  given  much  consideration,  with 
the  result  that  many  important  characters  go  unobserved. 
Before  proceeding  to  a  detailed  examination  one  should  care- 
fully note  the  form ;  this  applies  with  equal  force  when  selecting 
for  mutton  or  wool ;  if  for  mutton,  the  weight  and  condition 
are  important  and  the  quality  as  well  as  the  constitution  are 
of  vital  importance  to  both  types  and  should  receive  much 
careful  attention. 

The  form  will  vary  according  to  the  object  sought.  In  the 
fine-wool  sheep  the  form  may  differ  materially  from  that  desired 
for  mutton.  Class  A,  fine-wool,  should  have  very  heavy  folds 
over  the  entire  body.  Great  depth  of  body  is  often  more 
sought  than  width,  and  the  animals  are  often  quite  angular  in 
appearance.  The  form  sought  is  that  which  indicates  great 
vitality  and  gives  much  surface  for  the  production  of  wool. 
Fine-wool  sheep  are  therefore  often  high-standing;  deep  of 
chest,  though  narrow;  long  of  body,  though  well  supported; 
light  in  the  hind-quarters  with  skin  fold  varying  according  to 
the  class. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  form  of  the  mutton  sheep  should  be 
comparable  to  that  of  the  beef  animal.  They  should  be  low 
and  condensed  in  organization.  The  top  and  bottom  lines 
should  be  parallel,  the  shoulders  and  chest  almost  as  wide  as  the 
hips  and  rump.  The  body  should  be  short  and  thick,  as  long 
bodies  lacking  in  depth  and  fullness  are  objectionable  to  the 
sheep  feeder  and  to  the  butcher.  The  region  of  valuable  cuts 
of  mutton  are  the  same  as  those  of  beef,  that  is,  along  the 
back,  loin,  rump,  and  thigh ;  hence  these  regions  should  be  ex- 
ceedingly strong  and  well  developed. 


CHOOSING   AND   JUDGING   SHEEP  367 

Condition  and  weight.  —  Since  the  weight  depends  much  on 
the  condition  of  the  sheep,  they  will  be  considered  together. 
As  weight  is  a  breed  characteristic,  no  definite  figures  can  be 
suggested,  but  the  animals  chosen  should  be  fairly  large  for  the 
particular  breed  to  which  they  belong.  Among  wool  sheep  the 
condition  should  be  such  as  to  indicate  thrift  and  health ;  exces- 
sive fleshiness  is  not  essential.  In  general,  the  condition  must 
be  determined  by  the  touch,  as  the  wool  often  deceives  the  eye. 
Among  mutton  sheep  a  fair  amount  of  flesh  is  desirable,  even 
in  the  breeding  stock,  as  the  tendency  to  fatten  quickly  is  a 
very  important  consideration  in  this  type. 

Quality.  —  Sheep  possessing  much  quality  are  desired  for 
both  mutton  and  wool  production.  With  sheep,  as  with  other 
farm  animals,  quality  is  determined  by  the  bone,  skin,  and  hair. 
The  bone  should  be  dense,  clean,  and  of  fine  texture.  The  skin 
should  be  soft,  pink  in  color,  and  comparatively  thin.  Care 
must  be  exercised  in  respect  to  the  thinness  of  the  skin,  as  a 
thin  paper  skin  is  often  associated  with  weakness  of  constitu- 
tion. The  hair  on  the  ears,  face,  and  legs  should  be  soft  and 
silky.  These  are  important  features  in  sheep  intended  for 
wool  or  for  mutton,  for  breeding  or  for  feeding.  Sheep  possess- 
ing a  tight,  heavy,  pale  skin,  coarse,  harsh  hair  about  the  face 
and  on  the  legs,  and  heavy  rough,  coarse  bone  are  deficient  in 
quality. 

The  constitutional  vigor  deserves  much  attention,  for  in  its 
absence  the  wool  will  be  of  poor  quality  and  the  mutton  sheep 
an  unprofitable  animal.  Vigor  is  estimated  by  the  general 
expression,  by  the  condition  of  the  skin,  and  by  the  chest  ca- 
pacity. The  expression  of  the  eyes,  ears,  and  head  should  be 
mild  and  lively,  and  the  sheep  should  be  on  the  alert.  The  skin 
should  be  deep  pink  and  not  pale.  The  chest  capacity  should 
be  large.  A  good  way  to  estimate  the  chest  capacity  among 
sheep  is  to  note  the  distance  between  the  front  legs  along  the 
floor  of  the  chest.     If  the  distance  between  the  legs  is  small,  it 


368  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

denotes  a  narrow  chest.     A  narrow  chest  is  always  objection- 
able, as  it  may  indicate  lack  of  constitutional  vigor. 

Uniformity.  —  The  importance  of  uniformity  in  a  flock  of 
sheep  chosen  either  for  wool  or  mutton  cannot  be  overestimated. 
They  should  be  uniform  in  type,  size,  and  breeding.  While 
such  uniformity  may  not  add  to  the  production  of  wool  or  to  the 
ability  to  take  on  flesh,  it  materially  improves  their  general 
appearance  and  increases  their  market  value.  Either  the 
butcher  or  the  sheep  breeder  will  pay  more  for  a  uniform  flock 
than  for  one  in  which  such  regularity  is  wanting. 

Detail  characters  of  sheep 

A  detailed  examination  of  the  characters  of  sheep  is  of 
greater  importance  than  that  of  any  other  class  of  farm  ani- 
mals. This  is  due  to  the  wool  covering  many  defects.  In 
order  that  none  of  the  characters  be  overlooked,  they  should 
be  considered  in  order. 

The  head  should  be  short,  with  strong  jaws  and  large  nostrils. 
The  mouth  should  be  examined  to  note  the  age  and  whether  any 
teeth  are  missing.  Sheep  with  missing  teeth  are  undesirable  at 
any  price,  either  for  mutton  or  wool.  The  eyes  should  be  mild, 
bright,  and  prominent;  the  forehead  broad  and  full.  The  ears 
should  be  refined,  short,  and  active.  Coarse,  leathery  ears  are 
objectionable,  as  they  indicate  poor  quality.  The  horns,  if  pres- 
ent, should  be  strong,  rather  angular  at  the  base,  and  have  a 
spiral  shape  turning  backward  and  around,  sometimes  making 
two  complete  turns  (Fig.  110). 

Neck.  —  With  the  flat  hand  note  the  length  and  fullness  of 
the  neck.  Among  mutton  sheep  the  neck  should  be  full,  short, 
and  neatly  attached  to  the  head  and  shoulders.  In  fine-wool 
sheep  it  may  possess  some  length,  deep  folds,  and  lack  the  full- 
ness, though  it  should  be  neatly  attached  at  both  head  and 
shoulders  (Fig.  111). 

Shoulders.  —  Among  mutton  sheep  the  shoulder  should  be 


CHOOSING  AND   JUDGING   SHEEP 


3G9 


Fig.  110. — Determining  Condition 
of  Teeth,  and  the  Age. 


Fig.  109.  —  judging   Sheep.     Noting 
the    General  Appearance. 


•3S»*'t*     "*•• 


Fig.    111.  —  Noting  Fullness  of 
the  Neck. 


Fig.  112.  —  Fullness  of  the 
Shoulder. 


Fig.  113.  —  Width  of  Chest. 
2b 


Fig.  114.  —  Width  of  Body. 


370  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

full,  neat,  and  closely  rounded  along  the  sides  and  over  the  top. 
Sharp,  angular  shoulders  are  very  objectionable.  They  should 
be  smoothly  curved  with  flesh  (Fig.  112). 

Chest.  —  With  the  flat  hand  note  the  capacity  of  the  chest 
as  follows :  kneeling  on  the  left  side  of  the  animal,  place  the 
left  hand  on  the  floor  of  the  chest,  between  and  just  back  of 
the  fore  legs,  at  the  same  time  placing  the  right  hand  on  the 
back  just  to  the  rear  of  the  shoulder-tops.  In  this  position  one 
can  note  lack  of  depth  as  well  as  the  narrowness  of  the  chest 
at  both  top  and  bottom.  Next  note  the  heart  girth  and  width 
of  chest  by  placing  one  hand  on  either  side  at  the  same  time. 
The  importance  of  a  wide,  deep  chest,  indicating  great  vitality, 
cannot  be  overestimated.  In  no  other  way  except  by  the 
touch  can  these  dimensions  be  determined,  as  the  wool  covers 
the  parts  so  completely  (Fig.  115). 

Body.  —  With  the  hands  in  the  same  position,  one  either  side 
of  the  animal,  note  the  width  of  the  body.  Next  place  the 
flat  hand  on  the  back  at  the  shoulder-tops  and  note  the  width 
and  straightness  of  the  back  from  the  shoulder-tops  to  the  tail- 
head,  by  pressing  down  gently  as  the  hand  is  drawn  to  the  rear. 
In  so  doing  one  must  observe  that  the  sheep  does  not  move  his 
back  as  the  hand  is  passing  over  and  make  the  back  appear 
swayed  when  in  reality  it  is  not.  Since  the  back,  loin,  and 
rump  contain  the  valuable  cuts,  a  close  examination  of  this 
region  is  important,  and,  as  in  the  chest,  this  can  be  noted  only 
by  the  touch  (Figs.  114  and  117). 

The  rump  should  be  long,  wide,  and  level.  This  can  be  ascer- 
tained only  by  the  touch.  The  fleshiness  should  be  carried 
well  down  to  the  hock,  and  the  twist  should  be  plump  and  full 
(Figs.  118  and  119). 

The  leg  of  mutton,  which  includes  the  rump  also,  is  the  most 
valuable  cut  of  mutton ;  therefore,  the  thigh  should  be  heavily 
meated.  This  can  be  determined  only  by  the  touch,  and  to  do 
this  one  places  the  left  hand  around  the  leg  at  the  flank  and 
the  right  around  the  rear  at  the  thigh  (Fig.  120). 


CHOOSING   AND  JUDGING   SHEEP 


371 


Fig.    115.  —  Depth  of  Chest. 


Fig.  116.  —  Fullness  at  Shoulder 
Tops. 


Fig.  117.  —  Determining  Fullness 
of  Back. 


Fig.  118.  —  Width  of  Hips. 


Fig.  119. —  Width  of  Thighs. 


Fig.  120.  —  Condition  of  Leg  of 
Mutton. 


372 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


The  legs  should  be  carefully  observed.  Sheeps'  legs  are  at 
best  far  from  straight.  As  a  rule,  the  fore  legs  of  fine-wool 
sheep  are  too  close  together,  the  knees  often  almost  touching. 
This  is  objectionable,  for,  as  we  have  already  observed,  fore  legs 
placed  close  together  indicate  a  narrow  chest,  which  in  turn 
signifies  lack  of  constitutional  vigor.  Fine- wool  sheep  also 
have  very  crooked  hocks,  which  is  equally  as  objectionable. 
Often  the  legs  below  the  hocks  are  carried  too  much  under  the 
body,  the  shanks  being  too  slanting.  The  toes  are  often  neg- 
lected and  let  grow  out  too  long,  which  throws  the  legs  still 
farther  out  of  their  proper  position. 

Examining  the  fleece 

In  the  examination  of  the  wool  the  chief  factors  to  consider 
are  the  quantity,  the  quality,  and  the  condition.  In  consider- 
ing the  quantity  the  entire  body  must  be  examined.     To  note 

the  quantity  along  the  belly 
and  arm  pits,  the  sheep 
should  be  turned  up  and 
placed  on  its  rump.  To  turn 
the  sheep,  stand  on  the  left 
side  of  the  animal,  place  the 
left  arm  around  under  the 
neck  at  the  shoulder  points, 
with  the  right  hand  reach 
under  the  sheep,  seize  the 
right  hind  foot,  gently  lift  the 
animal  off  his  feet,  and  place 
him  on  his  rump,  belly  up. 
One  should  have  a  mat  or  gunny  sack  on  which  to  place  the 
sheep  to  prevent  soiling  the  wool  of  the  rump,  particularly  if 
in  the  show  ring.  With  the  sheep  in  this  position,  the  wool 
along  the  belly  and  arm  pits  can  be  carefully  noted.  These 
places  should  be  densely  covered,  though  such  is  seldom  the 


Fig.    121.  —  Examining    the    Fleece 
for  the  Finest  of  the  Wool. 


CHOOSING  AND  JUDGING   SHEEP  373 

case  among  many  of  the  mutton  breeds.     In  considering  the 

quality,  the  best  method  is  to  open  the  fleece  along  the  side 

just  back  of  the  shoulder  and 

in   the    region   of    the    thigh. 

With  the    hands   placed  in  a 

flat  position,  open  the  wool  just 

back  of  the  shoulder  (Fig.  121). 

It   is  in  this   region   that   the 

finest  and  soundest  wool  of  the 

fleece    is    found.       With    the 

hands   in   like   position,    open 

the  wool  along  the  thigh  (Fig. 

122).       In  this  region  the  poor-    Fig.    122.  — Examining  the    Fleece 
est    and    Coarsest   Wool    of    the      FOR  THE  Coarsest  of  the  Wool. 

entire  fleece  is  to  be  found. 

Quantity  of  fleece.  —  The  chief  factors  to  be  considered  in 
determining  the  quantity  of  fleece  are  the  density  and  length, 
and  the  evenness  of  both  over  all  parts  of  the  sheep's  body. 

By  density  is  meant  the  closeness  of  the  fibers  or  the  number 
of  fibers  that  grow  on  a  square  inch.  As  a  rule  the  greater  the 
number,  the  finer  the  fibers  will  be;  hence  the  fleece  will  not 
only  be  heavier,  but  more  valuable  as  well.  A  dense  fleece  is 
desired,  as  it  affords  the  animal  more  protection  than  one  that 
is  loose  and  open;  hence  sheep  with  dense  fleeces  suffer  less 
from  catarrhal  and  other  diseases.  A  dense,  oily  fleece  is  im- 
pervious to  rain,  snow,  and  wind,  as  well  as  dirt,  dust,  and 
pieces  of  hay.  On  the  other  hand,  the  loose  open  fleece  becomes 
saturated  with  water  on  exposure,  the  sheep  catch  cold,  suffer 
from  catarrh,  running  at  the  nose,  scouring,  and  various  other 
diseases,  and  the  fleece  becomes  loaded  with  dust,  dirt,  and 
chaff. 

The  length  of  the  fleece  is  one  of  the  important  features  in 
considering  the  quantity.  The  length  is  a  breed  characteristic, 
and  the  only  suggestion  that  can  be  made  is  that  it  should  be 


374  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

long  for  the  particular  breed  concerned.  The  length  will  vary 
from  approximately  two  inches  in  the  case  of  the  fine-wool  to 
twenty  and  even  more  inches  for  a  single  year's  growth  in  the 
case  of  some  of  the  long-wool  breeds. 

Quality  of  fleece.  —  The  chief  factors  to  be  considered  in  de- 
termining the  quality  of  the  fleece  are  the  softness,  crimp,  and 
the  soundness.  Quality  and  quantity  are  not  associated;  that 
is  to  say,  as  a  general  rule  the  shorter-wool  breeds  of  sheep 
possess  the  finest  quality  of  wool.  As  stated,  the  finest  quality 
of  wool  is  located  over  the  heart  region  and  the  poorest  quality 
on  the  thigh. 

The  softness  is  estimated  by  pressing  the  fleece  with  the  closed 
hand.  The  amount  of  oil  or  yolk  influences  the  softness  to  a 
considerable  extent;  also  the  management,  the  kind  of  food,  and 
the  nature  of  the  soil.  Providing  the  sheep  suitable  quarters, 
feeding  foods  rich  in  fat,  and  pasturing  them  on  clay  soils,  all 
have  a  tendency  to  increase  the  softness  of  the  fleece.  Chalky 
soils,  on  the  other  hand,  are  noted  for  emphasizing  harshness  of 
the  fleece.  Harshness  is  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  absence 
of  yolk,  which  results  from  exposure,  lack  of  proper  food,  ill 
health,  and  the  like. 

Crimp  refers  to  the  folds  or  spirals  of  the  fiber.  The  crimp 
should  be  fine,  close,  and  regular  from  one  end  of  the  fiber  to 
the  other,  as  this  indicates  wool  of  finest  quality.  If  the  crimp 
is  irregular,  short  and  close  in  places,  long  and  wavy  in  others, 
the  fiber  is  probably  unsound.  In  all  coarse  wool,  the  crimp  is 
open  and  wavy. 

Soundness  indicates  that  the  fiber  should  be  strong  from  end 
to  end,  as  it  usually  will  be  if  the  crimp  is  fine,  close,  and 
regular.  To  furnish  an  additional  guide  in  locating  unsound- 
ness, remove  a  small  lock  of  the  wool  and  stretch  evenly  and 
gently  until  the  strength  becomes  apparent.  If  the  fibers  each 
break  in  approximately  the  same  place,  it  indicates  an  un- 
sound place  in  the  wool.      When  such  break  occurs  near  the 


CHOOSING   AND  JUDGING    SHEEP 


375 


bottom,  it  is  spoken  of  as  "weak  bottoms";  when  near  the 
middle,  "weak  middles,"  and  when  near  the  top,  "weak  tops." 
If  the  fibers  are  resistant,  each  breaking  in  a  different  place,  and 
the  crimp  fine,  close,  and  even,  the  fiber  is  sound. 

Condition  of  the  fleece.  —  The  chief  factors  to  be  considered 
in  determining  the  condition  of  the  fleece  are  its  purity,  luster, 
brightness,  and  the  oil  or  yolk.  The  condition  of  the  fleece  is 
influenced  by  breeding,  feeding,  and  management,  some  breeds 
possessing  much  brighter  wool  than  others,  some  foods  produc- 


Fig.    123.  —  American   Merino  Ewes.     Owned   by  W.  M.  Staley,  Marysville, 

Ohio. 

The  American  Merino  developed  from  the  Spanish  Merino,  although  they  have 
been  much  improved  in  America.  This  breed  is  noted  particularly  for  the 
strong,  fine,  and  heavy  fleece.  Ewes  shear  from  10  to  15  pounds,  while  rams 
easily  attain  20  pounds  of  fine  wool.  In  weight  the  ewes  reach  100  pounds 
and  up,  while  the  rams  weigh  130  pounds  and  up,  often  attaining  200  pounds. 
This  breed  is  very  popular  in  the  United  States. 


ing  more  yolk  than  others;  and  providing  suitable  quarters 
and  giving  proper  care  keeps  the  wool  much  more  clean  than 
otherwise. 

Purity  refers  to  the  freedom  of  the  fleece  from  foreign  ma- 
terial. In  the  absence  of  proper  management,  where  sheep  are 
long  exposed  to  conditions  opposed  to  thrift,  the  wool  has  a 
tendency  to  revert  to  its  original  form.  Hairs  and  dead  fibers, 
often  called  "kemp,"  make  their  appearance.  The  fleece 
that  is  loose  and  open  often  accumulates  much  chaff,  pieces  of 


376  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

hay,  and  the  like.  This  foreign  material  is  very  injurious  to 
the  fleece,  as  it  is  difficult  to  remove,  does  not  absorb  dyes, 
and  interferes  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth. 

Luster  refers  to  the  glistening  appearance  of  the  fiber.  On 
being  held  in  the  light  the  fiber  appears  as  if  it  were  varnished. 
Luster  is  independent  of  oil,  as  fibers  possessing  a  small  amount 
of  oil  or  yolk  may  be  very  lustrous,  while  other  fibers  possessing 
much  oil  may  be  rather  dull.  The  significance  of  this  luster  is 
that  wool  possessing  it  more  readily  takes  delicate  dyes. 

Brightness  refers  to  the  color  of  the  fibers.  Wool  is  spoken  of 
as  bright  or  dark,  the  former  signifying  a  clear  white  color,  the 
latter  signifying  the  darker  colors. 

Yolk  refers  to  the  oil  or  grease  that  is  found  in  the  wool. 
This  oil  is  readily  recognized  by  running  the  hand  over  the 
wool.  The  various  breeds  differ  widely  in  the  amount  of  oil 
secreted  and  the  amount  is  influenced  by  the  food.  Yolk  is 
desirable  as  the  fleece  is  much  softer,  more  compact,  as  well  as 
brighter  and  cleaner,  and  in  addition  it  indicates  thrift  in  the 
sheep.  Excessive  quantities  of  yolk  are  of  no  advantage,  and 
may  be  a  source  of  direct  loss,  especially  in  the  manufacturing 
of  woolens. 

Summary. —  In  the  examination  of  wool,  therefore,  one  must 
consider  first  the  quantity,  second  the  quality,  and  third  the 
condition.  Under  quantity  note  the  covering  over  the  entire 
body,  including  the  belly  and  arm  pits,  also  the  density  and 
length  which  should  be  even  over  the  entire  body;  under 
quality  note  the  softness,  crimp,  and  soundness;  and  under 
condition  note  the  purity,  luster,  brightness,  and  yolk. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
FEEDING   SHEEP 

Sheep  are  among  the  most  difficult  of  farm  animals  to  feed. 
Thorough  familiarity  with  their  habits  is  essential  to  success. 
No  other  farm  animal  is  less  understood  by  the  masses  of 
American  farmers.  A  knowledge  of  their  peculiar  characteris- 
tics can  be  gained  only  by  a  careful  study  and  much  experience 
in  handling  the  animals.  Sheep  are  naturally  very  timid  in 
their  disposition,  very  dainty  feeders,  and  are  easily  frightened 
out  of  their  appetite.  A  sudden  noise  or  disturbance  of  any 
kind,  as  the  bark  of  a  dog,  will  often  greatly  frighten  them  and 
sometimes  create  a  stampede  or  panic  in  the  entire  flock. 
Sheep  have  a  natural  aversion  for  strange  dogs,  and  one  coming 
near  the  flock  will  cause  the  sheep  to  run,  which  excites  the 
dog  to  the  chase,  not  necessarily  because  he  is  a  vicious  dog 
but  because  of  his  nature  to  give  chase  to  whatever  flees  from 
him.  In  the  excitement  of  the  chase,  the  dog  may  tear  the 
skins  of  the  sheep  with  the  teeth,  sometimes  inflicting  fatal 
wounds.  Sheep  thus  chased  may  die  of  exhaustion,  and  the 
entire  flock  will  shrink  badly  in  weight.  In  most  cases  if  the 
sheep  would  stand  their  ground,  the  dog  would  not  give  chase. 
As  goats  do  not  ordinarily  run  from  dogs,  one  or  two  placed  in 
the  flock  often  prevents  the  sheep  from  becoming  frightened. 
The  difficulty  is  to  get  the  goats  to  stay  with  the  flock.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  raise  the  goats  with  the  flock  to  teach 
them  to  remain  with  it  at  all  times.  It  is  very  apparent  that 
if  sheep  are  to  be  profitable,  they  must  be  kept  free  from  all 

877 


378  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

such  excitement,  and  all  unnecessary  noise  must  be  avoided. 
To  avoid  startling  the  sheep,  herdsmen  often  make  it  a  prac- 
tice to  whistle  or  talk  to  them  as  they  approach. 

Sheep  are  the  most  susceptible  of  farm  animals  to  the 
ravages  of  parasites,  both  internal  and  external.  These  para- 
sites in  some  one  or  more  of  their  many  forms  are  responsible 
for  the  larger  number  of  failures  in  this  country.  No  part  of 
our  land  is  free  from  them  all.  In  certain  localities  one  form 
will  be  the  more  destructive,  in  other  localities  another  form  is 
to  be  dreaded.  For  example,  in  the  corn-belt  the  stomach 
worm  (Stro?igylus  contortus)  is  by  far  the  most  serious,  while 
in  the  far  West,  scab  is  the  more  troublesome.  As  a  rule  little 
attention  is  given  these  parasites;  the  flock  becomes  infested, 
many  of  the  sheep  become  ill  and  die,  and  the  others  fail  to 
thrive,  and  sometimes  the  owner  does  not  know  what  causes  the 
trouble. 

Sheep  possess  a  very  dainty  appetite.  The  food  must  be  at- 
tractive when  placed  before  them  or  they  are  likely  to  refuse  it. 
Any  food  left  in  the  feed  boxes  must  be  removed  as  soon  as  the 
sheep  are  through  feeding.  If  such  food  is  left,  it  undergoes 
slight  change,  becoming  sour,  and  when  the  fresh  food  is  placed 
in  this,  the  sheep  refuse  it  entirely.  Sometimes  the  trough  in 
which  the  grain  is  fed  is  placed  beneath  the  hay-rack  in  such  a 
way  as  to  collect  the  dust,  dirt,  and  chaff  that  sifts  from  the 
hay.  This  construction,  while  economical  of  material  and 
space,  is  objectionable  because  the  grain  trough  cannot  be 
kept  clean  as  it  should  be,  with  the  result  that  occasionally 
the  sheep  refuse  the  grain. 

While  sheep  can  withstand  the  cold  without  suffering  much 
inconvenience,  they  cannot  endure  the  rain  or  snow  that  satu- 
rates their  wool,  nor  dark,  damp,  and  poorly  ventilated  quar- 
ters. Such  conditions  lead  to  colds,  running  at  the  nose, 
catarrh,  inflammation,  diarrhea,  and  all  kinds  of  sheep  diseases. 
From  this  it  follows  that  if  sheep  are  to  prove  profitable,  they 


FEEDING   SHEEP  379 

must  be  kept  quiet ;  all  unnecessary  excitement  avoided,  prop- 
erly nutritious  foods  and  suitable  quarters  provided. 

FOOD    REQUIREMENTS    OF   SHEEP 

The  quantity  of  food  required  by  sheep  depends  on  many 
factors,  chief  of  which  are  the  kind  of  food,  and  the  age,  weight, 
condition  and  individuality  of  the  animal  as  well  as  the  chief 
product  sought,  whether  wool  or  mutton. 

Since  foods  vary  widely  in  the  energy  they  contain  as  well  as 
in  their  influence  upon  wool  or  mutton  production,  and  since 
young  animals,  for  an  equal  weight,  require  more  food,  and  of  a 
different  kind  than  older  animals,  it  is  not  possible  to  state  exact 
amounts.  The  Wolff-Lehman  standards,  however,  will  serve  as 
a  guide  to  be  modified  to  suit  the  foods,  animal,  and  conditions. 
These  standards  (p.  380)  were  arranged  to  meet  the  need  of 
the  average  farm  sheep  under  normal  conditions,  and  as  general 
guides  to  be  varied  in  practice  as  circumstances  suggest. 

Sudden  changes  in  the  food  of  sheep  are  to  be  avoided  for  the 
reason  that  the  alimentary  system,  in  many  cases,  is  unable  to 
accommodate  itself  at  once,  and  digestive  disorders  follow. 
Such  changes  sometimes  result  in  bloating,  as  when  sheep  are 
transferred  from  a  dry  to  a  watery  diet,  from  the  dry-lot  feed- 
ing of  winter  to  the  early  spring  pasture  where  the  grass  is 
very  succulent.  Some  pasture  grasses  are  very  likely  to  pro- 
duce bloating,  particularly  alfalfa  and  clover.  In  regions  of 
considerable  rainfall  and  much  dew,  alfalfa  is  serious  in  this 
respect. 

Fresh  cool  water  should  be  available  at  all  times.  In  winter, 
when  it  is  exceedingly  cold,  sheep  are  not  likely  to  drink  very 
much,  but  if  one  is  to  succeed  with  them,  they  must  have  free 
access  to  water.  Sheep  are  peculiar  in  their  habit  of  drinking  as 
well  as  eating,  and  if  watered  at  intervals,  do  not  do  so  well  as 
when  the  water  is  available  at  all  times. 

Salt  in  limited  quantities  should  be  kept  before  the  sheep. 


380 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


It  is  especially  useful  in  the  spring  when  the  grass  comes,  and  no 
doubt  often  checks  bowel  troubles  when  the  sheep  have  free 
access  to  it. 

Wolff-Lehman  standards,  showing  the  amount  of  food  required  per  1000 
pounds  live  weight  for  both  wool  and  mutton  as  well  as  growing,  mature, 
and  fattening  sheep 


Condition  of  Animal 

Dry- 
Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Growing  Sheep 
Wool  Breeds 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Age,  Mo. 

Weight 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

4-6 

60 

25 

3.4 

15.4 

0.7 

1:5.0 

6-8 

75 

25 

2.8 

13.8 

0.6 

1  :  5.4 

8-11 

80 

23 

2.1 

11.5 

0.5 

1:6.0 

11-15 

90 

22 

1.8 

11.2 

0.4 

1:7.0 

15-20 

100 

22 

1.5 

10.8 

0.3 

1:7.7 

Growing  Sheep 
Mutton  Breeds 

4-6 

60 

26 

4.4 

15.5 

0.9     • 

1:4.0 

6-8 

80 

26 

3.5 

15.0 

0.7 

1:4.8 

8-11 

100 

24 

3.0 

14.3 

0.5 

1:5.2 

11-15 

120 

23 

2.2 

12.6 

0.5 

1:6.3 

15-20 

150 

22 

2.0 

12.0 

0.4 

1:6.5 

Mature  Sheep 

Coarse  wool     .     . 

20 

1.2 

10.5 

0.2 

1:9.1 

Fine  wool    . 

23 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

1:8.5 

Breeding        ewes 
with  lambs   . 

25 

2.9 

15.0 

0.5 

1:5.6 

Fattening    sheep, 

first  period   . 
Second  period  . 

30 

28 

3.0 
3.5 

15.0 
14.5 

0.5 
0.6 

1 :  5.4 
1:4.5 

FEEDING   THE    FLOCK 


The  feeding  of  the  flock  deserves  special  attention.         The 
flock  is  often  sadly  neglected;  it  is  pastured  along  lanes  and 


FEEDING    SHEEP 


381 


highways,  in  woodland  and  marshland,  or  in  hilly  land  in 
summer;  given  the  protection  of  the  woodland  or  straw  stack; 
and  fed  at  intervals  during  the  winter ;  and  as  a  result  of  such 
treatment  the  sheep  become  affected  with  parasites,  both  exter- 
nal and  internal,  many  may  die;  all  are  unthrifty,  and  the  owner 
becomes  discouraged,  selling  the  animals  for  little  or  nothing. 


Fig.  124.  —  Rambouillet  Ram.     Photograph  by  National  Stockman  and  Farmer 

The  Rambouillet  breed  of  fine-wool  sheep  developed  in  France,  although  tracing 
to  Spanish  origin.  This  breed  is  similar  to  the  Delaine,  but  possessing  more 
size,  the  rams  weighing  from  150  to  225  pounds,  the  ewes  125  to  175  pounds. 
The  fleece  is  the  lightest  of  the  fine-wool  sheep,  the  rams  shearing  from  10 
to  20  pounds  and  the  ewes  from  8  to  12  pounds. 

The  flock  in  summer 

Unlike  stock  cattle,  the  flock  must  receive  careful  attention 
in  summer  as  well  as  in  winter,  particularly  in  those  regions 
infested  with  stomach  worms,  —  the  sheep's  greatest  enemy. 


382  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

These  worms  have  done  more  to  discourage  the  propagation  of 
sheep  than  all  other  causes  combined,  especially  on  the  fertile 
farm  lands  in  the  central  states.  These  pests  seldom  trouble 
sheep  in  cool  regions,  or  in  cold  weather.  Lambs  are  espe- 
cially susceptible  to  attack,  the  older  suffering  much  less  and 
being  more  easily  managed  in  summer.  Because  of  the  cool 
weather,  the  New  England  states,  northern  New  York, 
Ontario,  upper  Michigan,  and  northern  Minnesota  and  Wiscon- 
sin are  comparatively  free  from  these  pests.  Only  occasionally 
do  stomach  worms  trouble  sheep  west  of  the  corn-belt,  and 
there  they  may  be  avoided  by  clearing  up  the  watering  places. 
Much  of  the  cheap  farm  land  throughout  this  section  could  be 
put  to  the  profitable  production  of  sheep. 

Pasture  for  sheep.  —  Pastures  for  sheep  need  similar  care  to 
those  suggested  for  cattle.  The  stand  of  grass,  the  drainage  of 
the  soil,  and  keeping  down  the  weeds  deserve  much  attention. 
It  is  even  more  important  that  they  be  kept  free  from  weeds, 
particularly  burrs  of  various  kinds,  as  they  are  especially  inju- 
rious to  the  wool  (page  286). 

Sheep  thrive  on  pasture  as  nowhere  else.  They  are  particu- 
larly adapted  to  grazing  short  forage,  and  prefer  it,  as  it  is  tender 
and  juicy.  In  fact,  sheep  often  keep  parts  of  the  pasture  grazed 
so  closely  as  to  injure  the  plants,  while  the  grass  in  other  parts 
of  the  same  field  is  left  to  grow  up  and  seed.  This  can  be  pre- 
vented in  part  by  mowing  the  entire  pasture  twice  each  year. 
The  sheep  will  then  pasture  on  the  tender  second  growth. 

Turning  to  pasture.  —  Care  should  be  exercised  in  turning 
sheep  to  pasture,  otherwise  some  of  the  flock  may  be  troubled 
with  bloat.  The  extent  of  the  trouble  depends  much  on  the 
condition  as  well  as  the  kind  of  grass,  young  succulent  grass 
being  more  troublesome  than  older  and  riper  grass,  and  alfalfa 
or  clover  more  than  blue-grass  or  orchard-grass.  In  regions  of 
much  dew,  alfalfa  is  likely  to  be  the  most  troublesome  of  all. 
After  alfalfa  becomes  woody  there  is  not  so  much  danger  from 


FEEDING   SHEEP  383 

bloating.  Mixed  grasses  are  also  less  dangerous.  There  are 
many  methods  suggested  for  turning  sheep  to  pasture.  The 
following  is  as  good  as  any;  when  the  grass  is  very  succulent, 
make  the  change  from  dry  forage  to  pasture  gradually ;  that  is, 
after  feeding  the  sheep,  turn  to  pasture  say  two  hours  during  the 
middle  of  the  first  day,  taking  the  sheep  off  the  pasture  before  the 
dew  falls.  The  second  day  leave  them  on  a  little  longer,  and  by 
the  fourth  or  fifth  day  they  may  remain  in  the  pasture  over  night. 
When  the  sheep  are  familiarized  with  the  pasture  in  this  way, 
they  must  be  carefully  noted  the  next  morning  to  see  that  none 
is  suffering  from  bloat. 

Tagging  the  sheep.  —  When  sheep  are  first  turned  to  pasture, 
the  succulent  grass  often  induces  a  more  or  less  lax  condition  of 
the  bowels.  The  soft  dung  soils  the  wool  below  the  tail-head, 
causing  the  parts  to  become  foul,  and  may  produce  troublesome 
and  vicious  sores  unless  given  attention.  Such  troubles  are  not 
likely  to  occur  when  the  sheep  have  been  shorn  previous  to  turn- 
ing to  pasture.  If,  however,  it  is  desired  to  turn  to  pasture 
before  shearing,  the  wool  should  be  carefully  clipped  away  be- 
neath the  tail-head  and  along  the  inside  of  the  thighs  behind. 

Change  in  pasture.  —  When  convenient,  an  occasional  change 
of  sheep  from  one  pasture  to  another  will  prove  advantageous. 
On  farms  heavily  stocked  with  sheep  there  are  two  reasons  for 
this :  first,  the  change  gives  a  chance  for  the  fresh  grass  to 
grow,  thereby  preventing  the  sheep  from  cropping  parts  of  the 
pasture  too  closely;  and,  second,  it  lessens  the  danger  from  par- 
asitic germs  by  allowing  the  larvae  to  die  before  finding  lodg- 
ment in  the  sheep's  body.  More  satisfactory  results  would  be 
obtained  by  dividing  large  pastures  into  several  small  ones,  and 
pasturing  them  in  turn  from  the  time  warm  weather  sets  in  until 
the  cool  weather  of  the  fall.  AVhile  this  system  would  no  doubt 
largely  enable  the  sheep  to  escape  parasite  infection,  it  involves 
extra  equipment  in  the  way  of  fencing,  shade,  water  supply,  and 
the  like,  and  there  may  be  other  means  of  accomplishing  the 


384 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


desired  end  without  the  extra  expense,  such  as  by  the  use  of 
sown  pastures. 

Providing  shade.  —  Sheep  on  pasture  should  be  given  pro- 
tection from  the  sun.     They  are  fond  of  shade  and  will  seek  it. 


Fig.   125.  —  Southdown  Ewe.    First  prize  ewe,  International  Live  Stock  Show, 
1909.    Owned  by  Chas.  &  Jas.  Leet,  Mantua,  Ohio. 

The  native  home  of  the  Southdown  breed  of  mutton  sheep  is  in  England.  This 
breed  is  noted  for  its  rapid  maturing  qualities,  and  its  delicious  mutton.  In 
outward  appearance  the  animals  are  perfect.  In  weight  the  rams  average 
about  175  pounds,  and  the  ewes  135  pounds.  As  a  wool  breed  it  occupies  a 
subordinate  place,  the  fleece  not  Aveighing  much  over  4  to  8  pounds. 

even  though  all  they  can  find  is  that  provided  by  the  shade  of  a 
wire  fence-post.  They  will  spend  much  of  the  time  in  the  shade 
during  the  heat  of  the  day.  Unlike  cattle,  the  shade  tree  is  not 
sufficient  for  sheep,  artificial  shade  being  much  preferred.     The 


FEEDING  SHEEP  385 

great  objection  to  the  shade  tree  as  a  resting  place  for  sheep 
is  the  danger  of  parasite  infection.  (There  is  also  danger  from 
lightning.)  There  is  an  accumulation  of  droppings,  which 
either  bear  or  afford  a  convenient  brooding  place  for  such 
harmful  parasitic  germs  as  "grub  in  the  head/'  throat  worms, 
stomach  worms,  nodular  disease,  and  the  like.  The  droppings 
encourage  the  growth  of  sweet  rich  grass  near  the  tree.  The 
germs  are  harbored  about  the  base  of  this  sweet  grass. 

When  the  pasture  is  near  the  shed  or  barn,  no  better  shade 
can  be  provided  than  to  give  the  sheep  the  freedom  of  these 
quarters,  which  should  then  be  slightly  darkened  by  hanging 
blankets  or  gunny  sacks  over  the  windows.  A  blanket  may  be 
so  hung  over  the  door  that  the  sheep  in  passing  into  the  shed  will 
brush  the  flies  off  their  backs.  The  shed  or  barn  should  be  kept 
well  bedded,  as  this  preserves  the  manure  which  otherwise  wrould 
be  largely  wasted.  Hay  kept  in  the  racks  will  prove  advanta- 
geous, as  the  sheep  will  eat  much  of  it  and  be  benefited  thereby. 
If  small  sheds  are  provided  in  the  field,  they  should  be  placed 
on  runners  in  order  to  move  them  from  place  to  place  as  the 
sheep  are  changed  from  one  field  to  another.  This  plan  scat- 
ters the  manure  more  thoroughly  and  does  away  with  much  of 
the  evil  caused  by  parasites.  These  shades  need  be  only  a 
roof  and  may  be  made  of  pine  boards,  as  it  is  not  essential 
that  they  be  rain-proof.  They  need  not  be  high.  Such  a 
roof  sixteen  feet  square  will  provide  shade  for  a  flock  of  forty 
sheep. 

The  use  of  soivn  pastures.  —  The  best  way  to  care  for  the  flock 
in  summer,  in  order  to  avoid  parasite  infection,  particularly  with 
a  flock  of  lambs,  is  to  sow  special  pasture  crops  for  the  flock.  In 
this  way  the  owner  may  have  various  green  forage  crops  coming 
on  regularly  at  different  times,  and  thus  avoid  having  the 
sheep  graze  on  the  same  area  for  any  considerable  time.  It 
avoids  practically  all  danger  from  the  many  parasites  that  at- 
tack sheep  during  the  summer  season.  There  are  many  plants 
2c 


386  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

that  may  be  used  as  green  feeds  for  summer  pasture,  chief  of 
which  are  rye,  oats,  alfalfa,  clover,  rape,  kale,  cabbage,  turnips, 
and  pumpkins. 

While  it  is  less  trouble  to  provide  permanent  pastures  and 
grow  the  common  farm  crops  for  the  sheep,  and  while  sheep  may 
be  maintained  upon  them  alone,  it  is  nevertheless  essential  to 
highest  and  healthiest  development.  Such  food  aids  in  escap- 
ing the  ravishes  of  the  parasites.  Rape,  kale,  cabbage,  and 
turnips  add  to  the  healthfulness  and  soundness  as  well  as  the 
quality  of  the  wool,  and  pumpkin  seeds  are  among  the  best 
vermifuges  known.  The  owner  who  is  to  attain  greatest  success 
with  sheep  will  find  it  necessary  to  grow  such  supplementary 
foods.  They  need  not  necessarily  occupy  extra  land,  as  both 
rape  and  pumpkins  may  be  grown  in  the  corn  field  and  the 
corn  not  be  injured  thereby  ;  or  they  may  be  grown  similarly 
to  soiling  crops  for  dairy  cattle  (page  220).  There  will  be  extra 
labor  connected  with  harvesting  and  feeding,  but  the  ad- 
vantage will  pay  many  times  over.  It  is  these  little  things 
that  make  sheep  farming  profitable. 

The  flock  in  winter 

In  winter  the  flock  is  entirely  dependent  on  the  care  of  the 
owner,  and  it  must  receive  more  careful  attention  than  during 
the  summer.  This  is  the  season  of  catarrhs,  running  at  the  nose, 
inflammation,  diarrhea,  and  the  like.  When  convenient,  the 
change  from  the  fields  to  the  yards  should  be  made  gradually. 
The  flock  should  be  yarded  at  night  as  soon  as  the  pastures  be- 
come crisp  from  night  frosts,  as  frosty  forage  is  likely  to  lead  to 
digestive  disorders.  Hay  should  be  provided  in  the  lot,  so  that 
the  sheep  will  not  go  to  pasture  hungry  in  the  forenoon.  If  on 
permanent  pasture  or  where  there  is  much  old  grass,  such  yard- 
ing is  not  so  necessary,  as  the  sheep  will  feed  on  the  dead  grass  in 
preference  to  the  frosty  succulent  grass. 

The  winter  ration.  —  The  feeds  that  should  enter  into  the 


FEEDING   SHEEP  387 

winter  ration  will  depend  on  the  kind  available.  If  convenient, 
succulence  of  some  kind  should  be  provided.  On  farms  where 
there  are  silos,  nothing  is  better  than  corn  silage.  In  the  absence 
of  silage,  roots  will  serve,  some  sheep  owners  even  preferring 
roots  to  silage.  The  roots  suggested  for  late  fall  use,  such  as 
mangels  and  ruta-bagas,  will  serve  admirably.  When  such  suc- 
culence is  available  at  the  time  of  changing  from  pasture  to  dry- 
lot,  the  sheep  will  suffer  no  loss  whatever.  In  the  absence  of 
silage  or  roots,  a  little  wheat  bran,  oats,  linseed  meal,  or  similar 
grain  should  be  fed,  particularly  to  the  ewes  that  are  to  lamb  in 
the  spring.  The  advisability  of  feeding  grain  when  succulence 
is  available  will  depend  on  the  kind  of  dry  forage  being  fed  and 


Fig.    126.  —  Southdown    Lambs.     A  prize  pen,  owned  by  Chas.  &  Jas.  Leet, 

Mantua,  Ohio. 


on  the  use  to  which  the  lambs  are  to  be  put.  If  winter  lambs 
are  desired,  grain  should  be  fed.  On  the  other  hand,  if  ewes  are 
not  to  lamb  until  time  of  going  to  grass,  and  the  dry  forage  con- 
sists of  clover,  alfalfa,  or  mixed  hay,  then  the  grain  may  be  dis- 
pensed with  at  least  until  the  sheep  show  signs  of  falling  off  in 
flesh.  It  may  be  of  advantage  to  begin  grain  feeding  four  to 
six  weeks  before  lambing  time. 

Exercise.  —  In  order  to  keep  the  sheep  healthy  and  thrifty 
they  should  take  exercise  daily.  This  often  becomes  a  serious 
problem  in  the  cold  climates  when  the  ground  is  covered  with 
deep  snow  much  of  the  winter  season.     It  may  be  advisable  to 


388  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

remove  the  snow  from  parts  of  the  lot  and  feed  them  some  dry 
forage  in  some  spot  not  too  near  the  winter  quarters. 

Care  of  the  feet.  —  During  the  winter  season  when  the  sheep 
are  rather  closely  confined,  it  is  important  to  watch  the  feet  and 
see  that  the  toes  do  not  grow  out  too  long,  as  they  very  often  do 
at  this  season  of  the  year.  Long  toes  should  be  trimmed.  The 
aim  in  trimming  should  be  to  keep  the  feet  natural,  so  that  the 
sheep  stands  squarely  upon  them.  Lack  of  trimming  is  some- 
times responsible  for  diseases  of  the  feet.  The  toes  may  be 
trimmed  with  a  sharp  knife,  a  chisel  and  block,  or  better  still  a 
sharp  hand  pruning  knife ;  take  care  not  to  cut  them  too  short, 
for  if  the  quick  is  cut,  the  feet  will  get  very  sore  and  prove  very 
annoying.  If  the  hind  parts  become  foul  tag  as  suggested  on 
page  383. 

Bedding  should  be  used  liberally,  otherwise  the  floors  will  be- 
come damp  and  foul  smelling.  Sheep  lying  on  damp,  filthy  beds 
are  subject  to  the  same  ills  as  those  exposed  to  draughts.  Fresh 
bedding  is  of  greatest  importance  during  the  lambing  season, 
as  damp,  filthy  quarters  are  particularly  hurtful  to  lambs  and  will 
soon  prove  fatal  to  them.  At  this  time,  fresh  bedding  should 
be  put  down  daily.  This  not  only  increases  the  healthfulness 
of  the  sheep-fold,  but  increases  the  quantity  of  valuable  ma- 
nure as  well. 

FATTENING    SHEEP 

Feeding  sheep  to  fatten  them  differs  considerably  from  feeding 
the  flock  in  general  or  feeding  for  the  production  of  wool;  it 
is  somewhat  similar  to  feeding  cattle  for  the  production  of  beef. 

Growing  winter  lambs 

In  recent  years  a  considerable  demand  has  developed  for 
winter  lambs,  particularly  in  the  eastern  cities.  Because  of  the 
forced  methods  of  feeding  adopted  in  pushing  the  lambs  forward 
so  as  quickly  to  prepare  them  for  market,  they  are  spoken  of  as 


FEEDING   SHEEP  389 

" hot-house"  lambs,  a  term  which  has  misled  many  as  to  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  animals  are  raised.  The  high  price  that 
these  lambs  command  on  the  market  has  led  many  to  think 
the  demand  only  a  fad  that  will  soon  pass.  While  the  de- 
mand could  no  doubt  be  oversupplied,  it  has  managed  to  take 
care  of  the  supply  and  bids  fair  to  continue  to  do  so  for  some  time 
to  come,  particularly  all  that  can  be  supplied  from  Christmas  to 
Easter.  Many  sheep  owners  have  not  attempted  to  raise  winter 
lambs  because  they  did  not,  know  where  to  find  a  market,  not 
realizing  that  such  lambs  are  a  regular  product  'upon  the 
provision  market  and  can  be  sold  through  any  commission 
merchant.  Some  persons  have  not  gone  into  the  business  be- 
cause they  think  it  difficult  to  prepare  the  lambs  for  market; 
but  this  is  an  easy  task,  as  any  one  can  prepare  a  carcass  who 
is  willing  to  exercise  a  little  care. 

Foundation  stock.  —  There  are  two  characteristics  that  the 
foundation  flock  must  possess  for  the  production  of  winter  lambs : 
the  ewes  must  drop  the  lambs  in  the  fall  and  early  winter,  and 
this  is  perhaps  the  greatest  difficulty  in  winter  lamb  production; 
and  the  ewes  must  be  good  milkers  in  order  to  nourish  the 
lambs  well,  as  they  should  weigh  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  at  ten  to 
twelve  weeks  of  age.  All  things  considered,  it  is  thought  best 
that  the  sheep  composing  the  foundation  flock,  for  the  produc- 
tion of  winter  lambs,  be  grades  rather  than  pure-bred  animals. 
The  mutton  breeds  would,  of  course,  produce  the  best  lambs, 
but  they  will  not  breed  at  the  proper  season.  The  Merino 
bears  lambs  fairly  early,  but  the  lambs  grow  too  much  wool 
before  they  have  size  or  are  fat  enough  for  the  market. 

The  best  plan  is  to  choose  a  grade  Merino  flock.  Put  it  on 
good  pasture  and  mate  the  ewes  with  a  good,  vigorous  pure-bred 
Horned-Dorset  ram.  The  lambs  of  this  mating  will  probably  be 
dropped  in  January,  February,  and  March.  This  crop  will  come 
too  late  for  winter  lambs.  The  ewe  lambs  should  be  saved  for 
breeding  and  the  others  may  be  fattened  for  spring  lambs.     The 


390 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


grade  flock  should  be  shorn  rather  early,  in  March  or  before  if  the 
quarters  can  be  well  protected  for  a  few  days.  In  May  turn  the 
sheep  to  pasture  and  in  addition  feed  considerable  stimulating 
grain,  such  as  ground  oats,  or  bran,  and,  at  the  same  time,  mate 
to  a  thrifty,  vigorous  pure-bred  Horned-Dorset  ram  by  turning 
the  ram  to  the  flock  each  morning,  as  suggested  on  page  407, 


Fig.  127.  —  Shropshire  Ram  "Davison's  Ambition."  Champion,  Interna- 
tional Live  Stock  Show,  1909.  Owned  by  Dr.  G.  H.  Davison,  Millbrook, 
N.  Y. 

The  Shropshire  Down  breed  of  mutton  sheep  originated  in  the  county  of  Shrop- 
shire, England.  This  breed  is  similar  to  the  Southdown,  but  somewhat  larger, 
the  standard  weight  for  mature  rams  being  225  pounds,  with  150  for  the  ewes. 
It,  also,  is  noted  for  its  early  maturing  qualities  and  delicious  mutton. 
As  wool-producers  this  breed  excels  the  Southdowns,  bearing  from  5  to  10 
pounds  of  medium-length  wool.  This  breed  is  extremely  popular  in  the  United 
States. 

rather  than  letting  him  run  with  them  all  the  time,  and  at  the 
same  time  marking  the  ewes  served  for  identification.  This 
system  of  mating  should  result  in  the  lambs  being  dropped  in 
October,  November,  and  December.     It  is  not  considered  a 


FEEDING   SHEEP  391 

good  plan  to  have  the  lambs  dropped  before  the  ewes  go  into 
winter  quarters,  as  the  lambs  then  entirely  escape  danger  from 
stomach  worms  and  as  a  rule  can  be  taught  to  eat  grain  much 
younger. 

After  purchasing  the  grade  Merino  flock,  some  persons  prefer 
to  give  the  ewes  a  year's  rest,  shearing  them  in  March  and  begin- 
ning the  breeding  in  May.  This  has  the  advantage  that  the 
ewes  are  not  nursed  down  in  flesh  as  a  result  of  raising  a  crop  of 
lambs.  Whatever  system  is  used,  the  ewes  must  have  weaned 
their  lambs  sometime  previous  to  going  to  pasture,  they  must 
have  been  shorn  for  some  time,  and  they  must  be  gaining  in 
flesh  while  mating.  With  such  a  flock  thus  treated,  there 
should  be  no  difficulty  in  having  the  lambs  dropped  in  the 
late  fall  and  early  winter  months. 

The  winter  quarters  for  winter-lamb  production.  —  In  the  discus- 
sion on  care  and  management  will  be  found  a  statement  of  the 
method  and  equipment  for  housing  sheep  (page  433).  The  term 
"hot-house"  lambs  has  led  many  to  think  that  extra  warm 
quarters  must  be  provided,  some  thinking  that  artificial  heat 
must  be  used,  others  that  the  roof  or  side  of  the  sheep  barn 
should  be  of  glass  construction  resembling  a  green-house.  Not 
only  is  such  extra  equipment  unnecessary,  but  if  the  quarters 
are  too  warm,  neither  the  ewes  or  lambs  will  thrive.  On  the 
other  hand,  winter  lambs  cannot  be  grown  if  the  ewes  are  ex- 
posed to  the  rain,  snow,  or  storm.  The  winter  quarters  must 
be  well  lighted,  well  ventilated,  and  free  from  draughts.  There 
should  be  sufficient  window  space  to  make  the  quarters  light 
and  comfortable.     Artificial  heat  is  entirely  unnecessary. 

Feeding  the  lambs.  —  The  ewes  should  be  fed  milk-producing 
foods,  such  as  wheat  bran,  silage,  and  clover  hay,  in  order  that 
the  milk  flow  be  large,  but  in  addition  to  the  dam's  milk  the  lambs 
should  be  taught  to  eat  grain  as  soon  as  they  will  take  to  it. 
Some  lambs  will  begin  to  nibble  grain  when  only  ten  days  or  two 
weeks  old,  and  they  should  be  encouraged  to  do  so.     A  lamb 


392 


mJnual  of  farm  animals 


creep  should  be  provided.  This  "  creep  "  consists  of  a  little  pen 
with  openings  so  small  that  the  lambs  may  pass  in  and  out  at 
will,  but  through  which  the  sheep  cannot  pass.  These  openings 
may  be  made  of  vertical  slats  placed  seven  inches  apart,  and  the 
edges  of  the  slats  rounded.  These  must  be  conveniently  placed 
for  the  lambs  or  they  will  fail  to  find  them,  as  the  young  lamb  is 
largely  a  victim  of  circumstances.  The  grain  boxes  within  the 
creep  should  be  flat-bottomed  and  placed  rather  low.  The  first 
feed  put  into  the  trough  may  be  wheat  bran,  to  which  has  been 
added  a  little  brown  sugar.  At  first  it  may  be  necessary  to  aid  the 
lambs  by  placing  some  of  this  mixture  on  their  lips.    The  troughs 


Fig.  128.  —  Champion  Shropshire  Ewes.     An  almost  perfect  flock, 
by  Dr.  G.  H.  Davison,  Millbrook,  N.  Y. 


Owned 


must  be  cleaned  daily  and  the  food  kept  fresh.  After  the  lambs 
have  learned  to  eat  grain,  the  following  mixtures  should  be  used  : 
50  parts  of  cracked  corn,  50  parts  of  wheat  bran,  and  10  parts  of 
oil  meal,  coarse  ground.  This  may  be  varied  by  adding  oats, 
barley,  or  gluten  feed  as  circumstances  demand.  A  fresh  sup- 
ply should  be  provided  each  day.  Lambs  thus  cared  for  should 
grow  rapidly  and  fatten  at  the  same  time,  so  that  by  the  time 
they  are  ten  to  twelve  weeks  of  age  they  will  weigh  from  50  to  60 
pounds,  when  they  should  be  slaughtered.  The  most  desirable 
weights  vary  somewhat  on  the  different  markets,  and  the  owner 


FEEDING   SHEEP 


393 


should  find  out  what  weights  are  mostly  in  demand.  The  weight 
demanded  will  range  from  45  to  65  pounds,  —  not  more,  as  they 
will  not  sell  for  hot-house  lambs  if  larger.  The  lambs  must  in 
all  cases  be  fat,  as  it  will  not  pay  to  ship  a  thin  carcass  to  a 
winter-lamb  market. 

Dressing  winter  lambs.  —  Dressing  winter  lambs  requires 
some  skill,  —  not  more,  however,  than  dressing  a  squirrel,  —  and 
any  one  can  develop  the  required  skill  after  carefully  reading  the 
directions  and  practicing  on  a  few  lambs.  The  methods  vary 
somewhat,  but  the  following  is  as  simple  and  efficient  as  any: 
Suspend  the  lamb  by 
fastening  a  rope  around 
the  hind  legs  so  that 
the  head  comes  within 
a  foot  of  the  floor. 
With  a  sharp-pointed 
knife  sever  the  artery 
and  vein  in  the  neck 
close  above  the  head. 
It  is  very  important 
to  have  the  lamb  thor- 
oughly  bled  out. 
Bright  red  blood  gives 
this  assurance.  It  is 
well  to  hold  the  head, 
otherwise  the  lamb  will 
throw  blood  over  the 
operator  and  may  soil  the  wool.  As  soon  as  the  lamb  ceases  to 
struggle,  remove  the  head.  This  can  be  easily  done  if  severed 
at  a  vertebra.  Place  the  carcass  on  a  table.  Remove  the 
front  feet  and  cannons  at  the  knee.  Loosen  two  or  three 
inches  of  hide  along  the  front  of  the  cannons  to  cover  the  joints. 
Remove  the  hind  feet  at  the  pastern  joints.  Slit  the  skin  from 
the  tail  to  the  brisket.     Loosen  and  remove  the  skin  along  the 


Fig.  129.  —  Dressing  Hot-house  Lamb,  show- 
ing Methods  of  removing  the  Hide  from 
the  Abdomen. 


394 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


floor  of  the  abdomen  and  for 
about  four  inches  up  the  inside 
of  the  hind-quarters  (Fig.  129). 
Suspend  the  carcass  by  the 
hind  legs.  Open  the  lamb 
and  carefully  remove  the  caul 
fat,  —  a  sheet  of  fat  surround- 
ing the  intestines.  Save  the 
caul  fat  to  cover  the  openings, 
and  if  the  weather  is  cold,  put 
in  warm  water.  Remove  the 
intestines,  stomach,  and  esoph- 
agus, and  in  warm  weather 
the  liver,  heart,  and  lungs, 
though  these  may  be  left  in 
when  the  weather  is  cold.  Pro- 
cure two  spreaders  or  back-sets 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  long, 
depending  on  the  size  of  the 
lamb.  These  back-sets  should 
have  shoulders  about  one  inch 
up  from  the  pointed  end  to 
prevent  them  from  entering 
the  flesh  too  far.  Insert  one 
in  the  outer  and  upper  part 
of  the  hind  flank,  then  cross 
the  back  diagonally,  entering 
the  opposite  side  nearly  or 
quite  as  far  forward  as  the 
chest.  The  second  crosses  the 
first  at  right  angles  across  the 
back.  Carefully  spread  the 
caul  fat  over  all  exposed  flesh,  holding  in  place  by  means  of 
tooth  picks  (Fig.  130).     Make  small  slits  in  it  over  the  kidneys 


Fig.  130. — Hot-house  Lamb  dressed 
and  ready  for  wrapping. 


FEEDING   SHEEP 


395 


and  pull  them  through. 
Hang  the  carcass  in  a  cool 
place  for  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  hours.  As  soon  as  the 
animal  heat  is  given  off  wrap 
in  two  separate  wrappers. 
The  first  may  be  of  cheese- 
cloth or  muslin,  which  should 
be  drawn  tight  to  prevent 
soiling  when  handling.  The 
outer  covering  may  be  of  bur- 
lap or  sacking  and  must  be 
well  secured.  The  lamb  is 
now  ready  for  consignment  to 
a  provision  commission  mer- 
chant (Fig.  131).  When  the 
lambs  are  to  be  shipped  a  long 
distance,  they  are  often  crated, 
placing  three  carcasses  in  a 
crate.  In  warm  weather  ice 
may  be  put  between  the 
lambs  but  never  in  them. 
The  lambs  should  be  dressed, 
as  they  are  ready  for  market, 
preferably  sending  a  few  each 
week  during  the  season  which 
runs  from  Christmas  to 
Easter. 

After  the  lamb  is  removed, 
the  udder  of  the  ewe  must  be 
watched  closely  and  not  per- 
mitted to  spoil.  If  necessary, 
remove  the  milk  by  hand  for  a  few  days. 


Fig. 


131.  —  Hot-house  Lamb  wrapped 
and  ready  for  shipment. 


396  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Growing  spring  lambs 

Because  of  the  difficulty  in  getting  ewes  to  conceive  suffi- 
ciently early  for  the  growing  of  winter  lambs  and  the  disad- 
vantages of  dressing  and  marketing,  many  sheep  owners  prefer 
to  grow  spring  lambs.  There  is  much  profit  in  selling  lambs 
afoot  in  May  and  June.  Usually  the  highest  prices  are  obtained 
in  June,  as  at  this  time  the  supply  of  winter-fed  western  lambs 
is  exhausted  and  the  summer-fed  lambs  are  not  yet  on  the 
market  in  any  considerable  number. 

The  foundation  stock  and  the  management  should  be  much 
the  same  as  that  suggested  in  growing  winter  lambs.  The 
ewes  should  be  mated  in  August,  September,  and  October,  as  the 
lambs  should  be  dropped  in  late  January,  February,  and  March, 
not  later  than  March.  The  lambs  should  be  provided  with 
creeps  and  fed  grain  in  the  same  manner  as  advised  for  winter 
lambs ;  for  if  they  are  to  be  marketed  in  a  thick  fat  condition  at 
the  age  of  four  or  five  months,  they  must  be  forced  from  the 
beginning.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  fatten  lambs  for  the  spring 
market  if  they  once  lose  their  baby  fat.  Lambs  thus  cared  for 
should  be  able  to  make  a  vigorous  start  before  grass  comes  and 
be  in  condition  to  make  the  most  of  it  when  turned  to  pasture. 

Lambs  dropped  in  February  and  thus  cared  for  should  make 
a  weight  of  approximately  eighty  pounds  by  the  middle  of  June. 
As  this  is  the  weight  demanded  of  this  class  of  mutton,  it  should 
be  the  aim  of  the  sheep  owner  to  supply  it.  When  there  are 
several  lambs  or  when  one  is  located  convenient  to  market,  it 
maybe  advisable  to  make  two  drafts,  selling  the  larger  and  fatter 
ones  say  the  first  of  June  and  the  remainder  of  the  lamb  flock 
the  latter  part  of  the  month. 

Feeding  lambs  in  the  fall 

Lambs  may  be  fattened  at  almost  any  season,  but  ordinarily 
the  fattening  period  extends  from  September  until  the  follow- 


FEEDING   SHEEP  397 

ing  May.  Fall  feeding  is  extensively  practiced  both  by  the 
farmer  who  raises  his  own  lambs  and  by  the  sheep  feeder  who 
buys  his  lambs  either  locally  or  from  the  western  range  and 
fattens  them  in  seventy  to  one  hundred  days.  Fall  feeding  is 
practical  on  pasture,  either  permanent  or  sown,  when  supple- 
mented by  feeding  grain.  The  various  pastures  that  may  be 
used  for  this  purpose  are  the  same  as  those  suggested  for  the 
flock  in  summer  (pages  382  to  386). 

Getting  the  lambs  on  full  feed.  —  Much  care  must  be  exercised 
in  getting  a  flock  of  lambs  on  full  feed,  particularly  if  they  are 
from  the  range  and  not  familiar  with  grain.  Furthermore,  many 
of  the  plants  used  in  fall  pastures  for  fattening  lambs  are  likely  to 
produce  bloating,  and  for  this  reason  much  care  must  be  exercised 
in  turning  the  flock  to  pasture,  particularly  if  the  grass  is  com- 
posed of  alfalfa,  clover,  or  rape  plants.  These  are  most  ex- 
cellent crops  for  fattening  lambs  in  the  fall,  but  due  care  must 
be  exercised  in  turning  on  the  sheep.  The  grain  should  be  fed 
sparingly  at  first  and  gradually  increased  from  day  to  day  until 
the  full  amount  is  being  fed.  Most  satisfactory  results  can  be 
obtained  by  feeding  the  grain  twice  daily.  Care  must  be  ex- 
ercised never  to  feed  more  than  the  lambs  will  consume;  or  if 
there  is  any  grain  remaining,  it  should  be  removed  before  a  new 
supply  is  placed  in  the  troughs. 

Lambs  thus  cared  for  should  make  rapid  and  economical 
gains.  Under  such  feeding,  60-pound  lambs  should  attain  a 
weight  of  85  pounds  in  75  days  and  be  sufficiently  fat 
for  the  market.  Thus,  lambs  put  on  feed  September  1 
would  be  ready  for  the  market  November  15.  As  suggested  in 
the  case  of  spring  lambs,  when  the  flocks  are  sufficiently  large 
and  the  sheep  feeder  is  located  conveniently  near  to  market,  it 
will,  as  a  rule,  pay  to  make  two  drafts,  selling  the  fattest  at  the 
end  of  about  75  days  and  the  remainder  of  the  flock  in  90  to 
100  days.  This  keeps  the  two  flocks  more  even  and  avoids 
holding  those  already  fat  for  the   slower  maturing  ones  to 


398  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

fatten,  and  avoids  selling  a  few  thin  in  flesh  after  the  majority 
have  fattened. 

Fattening  lambs  in  winter 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  lambs  are  fattened  during  the 
winter  season.  The  methods  employed  differ  fundamentally 
in  different  localities.  In  the  West  little  or  no  attention  is  paid 
to  shelter,  and  exercise  is  considered  essential ;  in  the  corn-belt 
much  attention  is  given  to  the  shelter,  at  least  to  protect  the 
lambs  from  the  rain,  snow,- and  storm,  and  to  provide  them  dry 
footing  and  exercise;  in  the  East,  where  lamb-feeding  is 
rapidly  developing,  shelter  is  considered  essential,  though 
exercise  under  the  methods  employed  is  likely  to  prove  fatal, 
and  the  sheep  must  be  kept  absolutely  quiet  or  trouble  will  result. 

Feeding  in  the  semiarid  West.  —  Large  flocks  of  lambs  are 
shipped  from  the  ranges  to  points  where  alfalfa  hay  is  available. 
Here  the  sheep  are  confined  in  corrals  which  are  divided  into 
lots  containing  approximately  500  head.  No  shelter  is  provided 
other  than  that  furnished  by  the  fence  or  the  alfalfa  hay  which 
is  often  stacked  near  by.  Rain  and  snow  storms  are  rather  in- 
frequent, and  it  is  felt  that  the  loss  occasioned  by  the  lack  of 
protection  is  less  expensive  than  shelter.  These  corrals  provide 
accommodations  for  many  thousands  of  sheep.  To  save  labor 
in  feeding,  the  lots  are  arranged  in  rows  with  feeding  lanes  be- 
tween. In  these  lanes  the  hay  is  stacked  and  fed  out  each 
morning  and  evening.  Sometimes  the  fence  has  a  space  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  boards  large  enough  for  the  sheep 
to  introduce  its  head,  and  the  rack  is  arranged  on  the  stack  side 
of  the  fence.  In  each  lot  are  placed  rows  of  grain  troughs 
sufficient  to  accommodate  the  entire  flock.  These  lots  are  pro- 
vided with  water,  often  pumped  by  windmills,  though  sometimes 
by  hand  or  with  an  engine.  Salt  is  kept  before  the  animals  at 
all  times.  In  this  way  five  men  can  care  for  10,000  or  12,000 
head  of  sheep. 


FEEDING    SHEEP  399 

Feeding  in  the  corn-belt.  —  In  the  corn-belt  the  practice  is 
entirely  different ;  in  the  West  sheep  are  fed  in  larger  numbers 
and  by  few  men,  while  in  the  corn-belt  few  sheep  are  fed  by 
great  numbers  of  farmers.  Here  feed,  both  grain  and  hay,  is 
very  abundant,  but  the  climate  is  the  objectionable  element. 
Sheep  need  dry  coats  and  dry  footing.  The  dripping  skies  of 
the  corn-belt  makes  this  impossible  without  providing  shelter 
from  the  rain  and  snow.  Hence,  before  attempting  to  feed 
lambs  ample  provision  must  be  made  to  shelter  them. 

Much  care  should  be  exercised  in  getting  the  lambs  on  full 
feed.  The  lambs  may  be  fed  hay  liberally,  but  the  grain  must 
be  fed  sparingly,  beginning  with  one-fourth  pound  to  the  head 
daily  and  gradually  increasing  the  ration  to  one  pound  by 
the  time  the  sheep  have  been  on  feed  three  weeks,  and 
continuing  until  they  are  getting  all  they  will  consume.  The 
lambs  should  not  be  fed  more  grain  than  they  will  clean  up  at 
each  feeding.  As  the  grain  is  increased,  less  hay  will  be  required. 
Lambs  thus  cared  for  should  make  a  gain  of  25  to  30  pounds 
in  100  days,  when  they  should  be  fat  and  ready  for  the 
market.  If  desired,  two  droves  of  lambs  may  be  fed  each 
winter,  purchasing  the  first  drove  in  November  and  fattening 
by  the  last  of  January,  immediately  purchasing  a  second  and 
fattening  by  the  first  of  May.  This  system  is  extensively 
practiced  when  feeds  are  comparatively  low  and  mutton  high. 

Feeding  in  the  East.  —  During  the  recent  high  price  of  mutton 
many  lambs  have  been  fed  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  methods  are  peculiar  to  the  East. 

The  feeding  pens  are  usually  rectangular  in  shape,  with  hay- 
racks and  grain-troughs  the  entire  length  of  either  side.  These 
grain-troughs  are  protected  with  vertical  slats  so  arranged  that 
there  is  just  room  for  one  lamb  to  feed  in  each  opening,  and  there 
are  just  as  many  of  these  openings  as  lambs  and  not  one  more. 
When  the  lambs  are  feeding,  they  are  packed  solid  along  either 
side  of  the  pen.     The  space  allowed  each  pen  is  approximately 


400 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


twice  the  room  on  which  they  stand  while  feeding.  Water  and 
salt  are  supplied  in  this  pen,  and  the  lambs  do  not  leave  it 
from  the  time  they  are  put  in  until  they  are  finished  and  ready 
for  the  market.  The  lambs  are  put  on  full  feed  in  about  three 
weeks  and  forced  until  fat. 


Fig.  132.  —  Hampshire  Ram.    Champion,  International  Live  Stock  Show,  1908. 
Photograph  from  National  Stockman  and  Farmer. 

The  native  home  of  the  Hampshire  Down  breed  of  mutton  sheep  is  in  Hampshire 
County,  England.  This  breed  is  noted  for  its  large  size  and  its  mutton  quali- 
ties. Mature  rams  should  weigh  about  240  pounds  and  the  ewes  180  to  200 
pounds.  In  general  appearance  this  breed  is  somewhat  coarser  than  either 
the  Southdown  or  the  Shropshire,  but  in  quality  of  the  mutton  is  not  inferior 
to  either.  As  a  wool  producer  the  breed  does  not  rank  high,  the  average  yield 
being  about  seven  pounds,  which  is  inferior  in  quality  to  wool  of  either  the 
Southdown  or  the  Shropshire. 


Two  factors  deserve  special  attention,  and  they  are  at  vari- 
ance with  accepted  ideas.  First,  there  must  be  no  more  feeding 
space  than  lambs ;  and  second,  the  lambs  must  be  prevented  from 
being  excited.     A  violation  of  either  of  these  will  prove  fatal  in 


FEEDING   SHEEP 


401 


this  method  of  feeding.  Formerly  those  engaged  in  lamb  feed- 
ing lost  many  lambs  without  apparent  cause.  They  were  the 
thriftiest  and  fattest  lambs,  and  the  loss  was  often  very  heavy, 
for  when  one  lamb  died,  others  were  sure  to  follow.  This  led  to 
experimentation  which  brought  out  the  following  facts :  the  lambs 
died  of  apoplexy,  the  result  of  overeating  or  of  excitement. 
When  one  lamb  died,  this  left  an  extra  feed  space,  another  lamb 
overate  and  died  of  the  same  cause.  When  the  feed  space  was 
closed  as  a  lamb  was  removed  and  the  amount  fed  was  cut 
down  accordingly,  and  when  the  animals  were  kept  perfectly 
free  from  excitement,  no  fatalities  occurred.  In  all  other  re- 
spects, such  as  the  feeds  used,  watering,  salting,  and  the  like, 
the  lambs  were  treated  the  same  as  suggested  for  corn-belt 
feeding. 

SAMPLE    RATIONS    FOR    FATTENING    SHEEP 

The  following  rations  are  collected  from  various  sources,  to 
furnish  a  guide  in  determining  the  kind  and  amount  of  feed  that 
should  be  allowed  fattening  lambs.  In  all  cases  the  rations  are 
calculated  for  100  head: 


1  Roots. 


Weight 

Ration 

Food  per 
Pound  Gain 

Lambs 

Grain 

Dry  Forage 

Grain 

Dry 

Forage 

55  1b. 

92  lb.  corn 
13  lb.  oats 

1101b.  mixed  hay 
1121b.  roots 

4.7 

4.7 
5.01 

56  1b. 

49  lb.  bran 
37  lb.  linseed  meal 
37  lb.  cotton-seed 
meal 

147  lb.  hay 
143  lb.  roots 

4.5 

5.4 
5.3  ' 

Ill  lb. 

140  lb.  speltz 
10  lb.  bran 

180  lb.  clover  hay 

3.5 

4.2 

110  lb. 

140  lb.  soy  beans 
10  lb.  bran 

180  lb.  clover  hay 

3.5 

4.7 

2D 


402 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Weight 

Ration 

Food  per  Pound  Gain 

Lambs 

Grain 

Dry  Forage 

Grain 

Dry  Forage 

109  lb. 

93  lb.  corn 
45  lb.  gluten 
10  lb.  bran 

180  lb.  clover  hay 

3.2 

4.2 

109  lb. 

135  lb.  corn 
10  lb.  bran 

180  lb.  clover  hay 

3.2 

4.2 

82  1b. 

149  lb.  shelled  corn 

104  lb.  clover  hay 

4.8 

3.3 

80  1b. 

81  lb.  shelled  corn 
81  lb.  bran 

107  lb.  clover  hay 

6.4 

4.2 

85  1b. 

64  lb.  shelled  corn 
64  lb.  wheat 

124  lb.  clover  hay 

5.1 

5.1 

83  1b. 

164  lb.  oats 

140  lb.  clover  hay 
100  lb.  roots 

5.2 

4.5 
3.11 

83  1b. 

132  lb.  corn 
33  lb.  oil  meal 

110  lb.  clover  hay 

4.8 

3.2 

76  1b. 

87  lb.  shelled  corn 
87  lb.  peas 

183  lb.  corn  fodder 

5.3 

5.8 

76  lb. 

154  lb.  shelled  corn 

188  lb.  corn  fodder 

5.6 

6.8 

89  lb. 

94  lb.  shelled  corn 
94  lb.  oats 

95  lb.  hay 

4.9 

2.5 

74  1b. 

211       lb.       wheat 
screenings 

72  lb.  timothy  hay 

7.2 

2.5 

76  1b. 

189  lb.  barley 
14  lb.  oil  meal 

72  lb.  timothy  hay 

5.8 

2.2 

62  1b. 

97  lb.  cotton-seed 
meal 

97  lb.  cotton-seed 
hulls 

3.4 

3.4 

89  1b. 

67  lb. corn 

290  lb.  alfalfa  hay 

2.2 

10.0 

80  1b. 

80  lb. corn 

Pasture 

1.7 

81  lb. 

78  lb.  oats 

Pasture 

1.9 

80  1b. 

77  lb.  barley 

Pasture 

2.0 

75  1b. 

65  lb. corn 
24  lb.  oats 

Pasture 

1.5 

1  Roots. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE   BREEDING   OF   SHEEP 

There  are  fewer  sheep  bred  in  America  than  of  any  other  of 
our  farm  animals.  This  is  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  average 
American  farmer's  lack  of  knoAvledge  in  propagating  sheep. 
He  is  wont  to  treat  them  as  swine,  and  under  such  care  sheep  fail 
to  thrive.  Sheep  breeding  is  a  very  profitable  branch  of  farm- 
ing in  England  and  France,  where  entire  farms  are  devoted  to 
the  industry.  These  farms  are  profitable  because  in  charge  of 
a  competent  flock-master,  who  does  no  other  work,  but  makes 
a  very  careful  study  of  the  needs  of  his  flock  and  supplies 
every  want.  On  many  of  these  farms  the  soil  was  formerly  very 
poor,  but  through  sheep  farming  they  have  been  restored  to 
fertility,  and  at  present  many  of  them  grow  very  luxuriant  crops 
of  forage. 

In  America  conditions  are  somewhat  different,  though  there 
is  no  reason  why  our  cheap  pasture  lands  cannot  be  made  to 
yield  a  handsome  profit  if  slowly  converted  into  sheep  pastures. 
Lack  of  suitable  labor  is  the  greatest  drawback  to  sheep  farm- 
ing in  America.  We  have  no  flock-masters,  as  do  the  English, 
and  the  average  American  seems  to  be  too  nervous  and  unsteady 
to  tend  sheep  with  perfect  assurance  of  success.  Properly 
cared  for,  sheep  are  among  the  most  profitable  of  farm  animals, 
and  restore  fertility  to  the  land  as  do  no  other  animals.  Every 
farm  devoted  to  general  agriculture  should  possess  a  small  flock. 
While  they  will  need  considerable  care,  on  such  a  farm,  the  food 
they  consume  will  be  largely  that  which  otherwise  would  be 
wasted. 

403 


404  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

At  present,  the  farmer  should  start  with  a  small  flock,  increas- 
ing it  gradually  as  he  learns  its  habits  and  needs.  The  unex- 
perienced should  begin  with  a  grade  flock  of  ewes,  which  should 
be  mated  to  a  pure-bred  ram.  The  sire  is  as  important  in  the 
flock  as  in  the  herd  of  dairy  cattle.  The  second  year  a  few  pure- 
bred ewes,  of  the  same  breeding  as  the  ram,  may  be  purchased; 
and  with  these  as  a  basis,  start  a  pure-bred  flock.  Some  of  the 
best  flocks  in  America  have  been  started  in  this  way. 

PLAN   OF   BREEDING 

A  clearly  defined  plan  should  be  outlined  before  the  farmer 
makes  an  attempt  at  breeding  sheep.  The  intending  sheep 
breeder  should  make  a  careful  study  of  successful  sheep  farms, 
noting  the  conditions  wherein  his  differs,  and  the  modifications 
that  must  be  adopted.  The  farmer  who  rushes  into  sheep 
breeding  blindly  because  the  price  of  wool  or  mutton  seems 
to  warrant  it  is  likely  to  pay  dearly  for  his  experience. 

Cooperative  breeding.  —  The  value  of  united  effort  cannot  be 
overestimated  in  breeding  sheep.  This  does  not  mean  that 
the  farmers  should  be  partners  from  a  financial  point  of  view, 
but  all  should  help  to  advance  the  interests  of  each  other's  flock. 
Free  conversation  on  all  matters  relating  to  the  flock  will  prove 
of  common  advantage ;  the  owner  will  improve  in  sheep  knowl- 
edge, and  the  flock  improve  in  excellency.  There  are  many 
things  that  a  few  sheep  breeders  would  be  able  to  do  that  one 
alone  would  hardly  undertake,  and  not  least  among  these  is 
the  purchasing  of  a  pure-bred  ram  of  much  excellency.  The 
influence  of  such  a  ram  is  left  in  the  flocks  of  several  breeders, 
and  uniformity  is  promoted.  The  old  saying,  "in  unity  there 
is  strength,"  applies  to  the  sheep  industry,  as  to  others. 

CHOOSING    BREEDING    STOCK 

In  choosing  the  foundation  flock,  the  farmer  must  have  in 
mind  the  demand  that  he  means  to  supply,  wool  or  mutton,  and 


THE  BREEDING    OF  SHEEP  405 

if  mutton,  whether  he  means  to  raise  hot-house  lambs  or  older 
mutton.  He  should  bear  in  mind  that  in  general  "like  pro- 
duces like"  and  that  "blood  will  tell."  This  applies  to  the 
ewes  as  well  as  to  the  ram.  Bad  qualities  of  one  are  as  likely 
to  appear  in  the  lambs  as  bad  qualities  of  the  other.  Even  after 
using  the  greatest  care  in  finding  the  breeding  stock,  the  breeder 
must  be  prepared  to  expect  many  lambs  inferior  to  both  parents. 

The  type  or  breed  should  depend  on  the  individual  preference 
of  the  breeders.  The  advisability  of  selecting  wool  or  mutton 
sheep  will  depend  on  the  conditions.  Mutton  is  preeminently 
adapted  to  the  corn-belt,  although  a  great  many  wool  sheep  are 
found  there.  Where  hot-house  and  early  spring  lambs  are  to  be 
produced,  Merino  and  Horned-Dorset  blood  must  predominate. 
Where  the  grazing  land  is  much  broken,  some  breed  other  than 
the  pure  mutton  is  likely  to  give  best  results.  For  such  lands 
a  good  grazing  breed  is  demanded.  Whatever  breed  is  chosen, 
there  should  be  no  further  change, 
for  it  is  indiscriminate  and  zigzag 
crossing  that  has  produced  our 
present  common  stock. 

Uniformity.  —  In  choosing  the 
foundation  flock  of  breeding  ewes, 
no  single  factor  is  of  greater  im- 
portance than  uniformity.  The 
ewes  should  be  uniform  in  type,    _,  _ 

.  Fig.    133.  —  Hampshire  Ewe. 

weight,     quality,      and      breeding.        Champion,     International     Live 

Such  a  flock  will  cost  slightly  more      Stock  show'  1908-    Photograph 

.  . .  by  National  Stockman  and  Farmer. 

than   one    not   uniform   in    these 

characters,  but  will  prove  much  the  more  profitable  in  the 
long  run.  As  we  have  already  observed  in  the  discussion  of 
mutton  production,  uniformity  is  a  market  requirement,  and 
when  it  is  wanting  in  the  breeding  ewes,  it  will  also  be  lacking 
in  the  crop  of  lambs.  When  one  is  producing  wool,  an  even,  uni- 
form clipping  is  to  be  desired.     Furthermore,  if  the  breeder 


406  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

wishes  to  sell  his  surplus  ewes  for  breeding  purposes,  they  will 
command  a  much  higher  price  if  uniform  in  all  features,  both 
because  of  their  intrinsic  worth,  and  because  of  their  improved 
general  appearance. 

The  ram 

The  ram  is  by  far  the  most  important  member  of  the  flock. 
Successful  sheep  breeders  rely  on  him  for  much  of  the  improve- 
ment of  the  flock.  What  has  been  said  about  the  stallion  (page 
102)  and  the  bull  (page  244)  also  applies  here. 

The  ewe  flock 

If  the  farmer  is  just  beginning,  the  best  time  to  purchase  the 
foundation  ewes  is  in  the  early  fall;  the  best  place  to  purchase 
is  in  the  locality  in  which  the  flock  is  to  be  kept.  Breeding  ewes 
on  the  large  markets  are  often  discarded  from  other  flocks  or 
from  the  western  ranges.  Such  ewes  are  usually  sent  to  market 
because  of  their  age  or  failure  to  breed,  and  are  to  be  avoided 
when  possible.  Local  ewes  will  give  much  better  satisfaction 
when  they  can  be  procured;  they  are  adapted  to  climatic 
conditions  and  parasite  dangers.  Western  ewes  do  not  resist 
parasites  as  do  native  ewes.  By  purchasing  the  flock  in  the 
early  fall,  the  new  owner  has  time  to  become  familiar  with  it 
before  winter ;  he  can  see  to  the  mating,  and  thus  know  exactly 
what  time  to  expect  the  lambs. 

In  choosing  foundation  ewes,  too  much  attention  cannot  be 
given  the  individual  animals.  They  should  each  be  carefully 
considered.  If  purchased  on  a  large  market,  the  condition  of 
their  teeth  should  be  especially  noted,  as  a  ewe  without  teeth, 
even  though  she  breeds,  is  likely  to  give  much  trouble  at  lamb- 
ing time.  Moderately  heavy  fleeces  are  to  be  preferred,  as  they 
indicate  stronger  sheep  and  greater  feeding  capacity.  When 
possible  the  condition  of  the  udder  should  be  noted,  as  many 
ewes  have  spoiled  udders  and  imperfect  teats. 


THE  BREEDING   OF  SHEEP  407 


THE    BREEDING    OF    THE    EWES 

Productive  period.  —  There  is  a  strong  tendency  on  the  part 
of  beginners  to  breed  yearling  lambs,  particularly  if  they  are  well 
grown.  The  yearling  ewe  should  not  be  bred,  as  the  drain  on 
her  system  weakens  her  condition  and  leaves  her  an  easy  prey 
to  parasite  infection.  Furthermore,  if  breeding  the  yearling 
is  persisted  in,  it  wall  lessen  the  size  of  the  ewe.  The  ewe 
may  remain  in  the  breeding  flock  as  long  as  she  continues  to 
breed  true.  She  will  be  unreliable  after  her  teeth  drop  out,  as 
it  is  difficult  for  her  to  nourish  the  fetus  in  winter  when  dry 
forage  is  the  main  feed.  Unless  a  valuable  ewe,  a  better  plan 
is  to  fatten  her  as  soon  as  she  begins  to  lose  her  teeth.  Ewes 
vary  widely  in  the  age  at  which  they  stop  breeding,  some  being 
unreliable  at  four  or  five  years,  while  others  will  continue  to 
breed  until  eight  years,  and  even  longer. 

Season  to  breed.  —  The  season  to  mate  the  ewes  will  depend 
on  the  time  the  lambs  are  wanted.  In  this  country,  on  the 
average  farm,  the  breeding  season  begins  in  September  01 
October.  To  encourage  breeding  early,  the  ewes  are  often  fed 
a  very  stimulating  ration,  a  practice  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
11  flushing";  and  some  owners  hold  the  ewes  while  the  ram 
serves  them,  then  in  a  few  days  the  ewes  come  around  natu- 
rally, when  the  ram  serves  them  again  in  the  natural  way. 
When  spring  lambs  are  to  be  produced,  the  mating  must  be 
done  in  August,  September,  and  October,  as  the  lambs  should 
be  dropped  in  January,  February,  and  March.  To  get  the  lambs 
to  mate  in  August  requires  similar  treatment  to  that  suggested 
for  winter  lambs  (page  389) .  On  the  average  farm  the  mating 
should  all  be  done  before  Christmas,  as  lambs  dropped  after  the 
middle  of  May  are  not  likely  to  thrive  without  much  extra  care. 

Method  of  mating.  —  The  common  practice  is  to  let  the  ram 
run  with  the  flock  during  the  breeding  season.  This  is  not  a  wise 
practice.     A  better  plan  is  to  keep  him  away  from  the  ewes, 


408 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


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THE  BREEDING   OF  SHEEP 


409 


bringing  them  to  him  each  morning  while  it  is  cool.  The  ewes 
should  be  placed  in  a  small  pen  and  the  ram  turned  in,  when  he 
will  single  out  those  ready  to  be  mated.  As  soon  as  mated, 
the  ewe  should  be  marked  and  placed  in  a  quiet  pen,  where  she 
should  remain  for  about  two  days  before  returning  to  the  flock. 


Fig.    134.  —  Champion   Oxford    Ram.     Photograph  from  National  Stockman 

and  Farmer. 

The  Oxford  Down  breed  of  mutton  sheep  originated  in  Oxford  County,  Eng- 
land. This  breed  is  similar  to  the  Hampshire  except  in  size,  when  it  occupies 
first  rank,  rams  weighing  275  pounds  and  the  ewes  200  pounds.  When  large 
mutton  is  desired,  this  breed  is  unexceled.  In  wool  production  it  excels  the 
Hampshires,  shearing  from  5  to  10  pounds  of  combing  wool. 


One  service  is  sufficient.  The  ram  will  search  out  another,  and 
she  should  be  treated  likewise.  The  ram  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  serve  more  than  four  in  a  single  morning;  if  more  are 
ready,  return  them  to  him  in  the  evening.     All  ewes  that  are 


410  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

served  in  the  same  week  should  receive  a  similar  mark.  Those 
served  one  week  may  be  marked  on  the  back,  or  top  of  head, 
with  red  paint,  the  second  with  black,  those  served  during  the 
third  week  with  green,  and  so  on,  using  a  different  color  each 
week.  By  this  method  one  can  tell  the  week  the  ewe  was 
served,  when  the  lamb  may  be  expected,  and  when  the  entire 
flock  of  ewes  has  been  mated. 

Managing  the  ram.  —  During  the  day  the  ram  should  be  kept 
in  a  quiet  cool  place,  and  out  of  sight  of  the  ewe  flock.  He  should 
be  fed  liberally  on  stimulating  food,  such  as  oats,  bran,  and 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  In  the  closed  season,  when  not  in  use, 
he  should  have  the  run  of  a  paddock.  In  summer  this  should 
contain  sufficient  grass  for  much  of  his  feed,  although  he  should 
be  fed  grain  in  addition.  In  winter  he  should  be  treated  much 
as  the  flock,  but  kept  in  a  quiet  place  and  away  from  all  un- 
necessary noise  and  excitement. 

The  "pregnant  ewe.  —  The  proper  care  of  the  ewe  flock  during 
pregnancy  will  do  much  to  lessen  the  difficulties  at  parturition 
time  and  subsequently.  The  ewes  must  be  kept  in  fair  flesh, 
neither  too  fat  nor  too  thin.  The  wool  deceives,  and  one  is  likely 
to  think  the  ewes  in  good  condition  when  in  reality  the}r  may 
be  thin.  Being  thin,  the  ewe  has  no  milk,  and  will  not  own 
the  lamb,  which  must  be  raised  by  hand,  —  a  very  difficult 
task,  and  entirely  impracticable  when  there  are  many  lambs. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  ewes  are  fed  abundantly  on  oats, 
wheat  bran,  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  the  lambs  get  so  large 
that  there  is  much  trouble  in  giving  birth.  In  such  cases,  ewes 
are  likely  to  perish  at  lambing  time,  although  such  as  do 
survive  will  raise  thrifty,  vigorous  lambs.  Better  results  will 
follow  taking  a  middle  course. 

The  pregnant  ewe  flock  should  be  liberally  fed  such  foods  as 
will  develop  bone  and  muscle,  but  not  to  excess.  If  the  dry 
forage  is  cornstalks,  then  feed  wheat  bran  and  oats  for  the  grain 
part  of  the  ration;  and  if  the  dry  1  odder  is  clover  or  alfalfa  hay, 


THE  BREEDING   OF  SHEEP 


411 


then  cracked  corn  may  constitute  the  grain.  If  at  all  possible, 
succulent  food,  either  roots  or  silage,  should  be  provided,  as 
such  food  serves  to  keep  them  in  good  physical  condition,  and  to 
encourage  the  flow  of  milk. 


Fig.  135.  —  Suffolk  Ewe. 


A  prize  winner.     Photograph  from  National  Stock- 
man and  Farmer. 


The  Suffolk  Down  mutton  sheep  originated  in  Suffolk  County,  England.  They 
are  similar  in  many  respects  to  the  Hampshires,  though  perhaps  a  little  under 
them  in  weight.  They  are  inferior  to  the  Hampshire  as  wool  producers, 
shearing  only  5  to  7  pounds  of  fair-quality  wool. 


Lambing  time.  —  The  period  of  gestation  in  the  ewe  is  popu- 
larly placed  at  five  months,  more  accurately  150  days  (page 
408).  Previous  to  the  lambing  time  the  sheep  owner  should 
make  ready  for  this  eventful  season.  The  ewes  should  be  neatly 
tagged,  all  wool  being  removed  from  the  udder,  as  otherwise  a 


412  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

lamb  might  nurse  a  tag  instead  of  a  teat.  A  number  of  small 
panels  three  feet  high  and  four  feet  long,  made  from  light  wood, 
should  be  provided.  Two  of  these  panels  should  be  hinged 
together  like  the  letter  L,  so  that  when  placed  in  the  corner  of 
the  barn  they  make  a  pen  four  feet  square.  Enough  of  these 
should  be  provided  so  that  a  row  of  four-foot  pens  maybe  placed 
along  the  side  of  the  barn  or  shed.  When  not  in  use,  these  panels 
may  be  folded  up  and  laid  away.  As  soon  as  a  ewe  has  lambed, 
she  and  her  lamb  should  be  placed  in  one  of  these  small  pens, 
thus  preventing  the  lamb  from  straying  away,  as  it  is  very 
likely  to  do  if  not  restrained. 

Ewes  that  have  been  well  cared  for  during  pregnancy  are 
likely  to  have  a  good  supply  of  milk.  They  should  be  separated 
from  the  flock  at  once,  and  given  extra  care.  For  a  time  they 
should  be  sparingly  fed  on  grain,  as  it  is  not  considered  best  to 
force  the  milk  flow  until  the  lambs  are  able  to  take  care  of  it 
without  danger  of  digestive  disorders,  such  as  scouring.  The 
grain  ration  may  consist  of  50  parts  chopped  corn,  50  parts 
wheat  bran,  and  10  parts  linseed  meal.  For  dry  forage,  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay  is  preferred,  and  if  possible  a  small  amount  of  silage 
or  roots  should  be  fed,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pregnant  ewe. 

Difficult  parturition.  —  Ewes  that  are  not  properly  fed  during 
pregnancy,  and  are  thin  and  weak,  often  have  difficulty  in  deliv- 
ering the  lamb.  Young  ewes,  even  though  well  kept,  often  have 
trouble  in  dropping  their  first  lamb.  Whenever  there  is  difficult 
parturition,  an  attendant  of  experience  should  be  near  by  to 
render  assistance.  When  the  ewe  shows  signs  of  lambing,  such 
as  teats  filling  out  to  end,  the  vulva  swelling  and  becoming  deeply 
colored,  and  in  some  cases  the  ewe  looking  for  her  lamb  before 
it  is  born,  she  should  be  placed  in  a  pen  away  from  the  flock,  and 
closely  watched.  In  natural  parturition  the  lamb  comes  with 
front  feet  first  and  nose  just  between.  Non-interference  is 
recommended  until  it  is  evident  the  ewe  needs  aid.  The  head 
and  shoulders  are  the  hardest  part  to  deliver,  and  after  these  are 


THE  BREEDING    OE  SHEEP  413 

through,  there  is  not  likely  to  be  further  trouble.  In  wrong 
presentation  it  is  usually  necessary  to  place  the  parts  in  the 
right  position  before  the  lamb  can  be  delivered.  The  method  is 
much  the  same  as  that  suggested  for  difficult  parturition  in  cattle 
(see  page  334).  In  such  cases  the  attendant  is  fortunate  if  he 
possesses  a  small  hand,  which  should  always  be  annointed  or 
greased  before  attempting  to  manipulate  the  parts.  Forceps 
are  sometimes  used,  because  of  the  small  size  of  the  opening, 
but  their  manipulation  requires  some  experience,  though  their 
use  is  to  be  recommended  in  preference  to  permitting  both  ewe 
and  lamb  to  die  unaided.  In  all  manipulations  extra  care  should 
be  taken,  drawing  gently,  during  labor  pains  only.  The  traction 
should  be  downward  as  well  as  backward. 

After  delivery,  if  the  ewe  is  weak,  there  is  nothing  better  for 
her  than  a  drink  of  warm  oatmeal  gruel.  If  she  will  not  drink 
without  aid,  the  gruel  may  be  given  from  a  long-necked  bottle, 
similar  to  drenching.  This  may  be  fed  three  or  four  times  daily 
until  she  gains  strength. 

THE    LAMBS 

Young  lambs  are  very  delicate  things,  and  their  treatment 
the  first  few  hours  after  birth  will  go  a  long  way  toward  deter- 
mining the  kind  of  sheep  they  are  to  make.  If  they  make  their 
appearance  naturally,  and  get  their  first  meal  unaided,  they  are 
not  likely  to  give  much  trouble.  Not  all  lambs  are  so  fortunate. 
Occasionally  one  is  born  without  difficulty,  but  fails  to  establish 
respiration,  —  does  not  breathe.  In  such  cases  assistance 
must  be  given  at  once,  or  the  young  lamb  perishes.  Respiration 
may  be  established  by  blowing  into  the  mouth  and  nostrils, 
by  rubbing  the  lamb,  or  by  gently  slapping  the  sides  with  the 
open  hand.  Other  lambs  may  establish  respiration,  but  be  so 
weak  they  cannot  find  the  maternal  teat,  and  perish  in  a  few 
hours  if  not  assisted  to  the  first  meal. 

The  first  meal.  —  It  is  very  essential  that  the  lamb  get  the  first 


414 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


milk  of  the  ewe.  When  the  lamb  is  too  weak  to  move,  it  must  be 
assisted.  To  do  this,  gently  set  the  ewe  on  her  rump,  as  though 
you  were  going  to  shear  her.  Place  the  lamb  on  its  side  under 
her  hind  limbs,  with  one  hand  open  the  lamb's  mouth,  and  with 

the  other  milk  a  small 
quantity  of  the  dam's 
milk  on  the  lamb's 
tongue,  at  the  same 
time  placing  the  teat 
into  the  lamb's  mouth, 
when  it  will  usually 
begin  to  suck  at  once. 
The  ewe  and  lamb 
should  be  watched 
closely  to  see  that  the 
lamb  gets  its  second 
meal,  for  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  aid  it  a  second 
time  and  even  a  third 
(Fig.  136). 

If  the  ewe  perishes 
during  the  parturition, 
and  there  is  no  other 
ewe  the  lamb  can  be  put  with,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  the 
lamb  its  food  from  a  bottle  with  rubber  nipple.  Modified  cow's 
milk  should  be  given.  Feed  the  milk  at  about  body  tempera- 
ture, 103°  F.,  giving  a  very  small  amount,  but  often,  every  two 
hours  at  first. 

A  chilled  lamb.  —  Occasionally  lambs  get  separated  from  their 
dams  and  become  chilled.  This  is  very  likely  to  happen  unless 
ewe  and  lamb  are  confined  to  a  small  space.  A  hot  bath  is  the 
best  thing  for  a  chilled  lamb.  Immerse  the  lamb  in  water  as 
hot  as  one  can  bear  the  hand.  Keep  the  water  hot  by  adding 
more  of  it,  taking  care  not  to  scald  the  lamb.     When  warmed, 


Fig. 


136.  —  Method  of   teaching  Helpless 
Young  Lamb  to  Suck. 


THE  BREEDIXG    OF  SHEEP  415 

wipe  dry  with  flannel  cloth  and  restore  to  the  dam.  Aid  the 
lamb  to  get  its  first  meal,  and  watch  closely.  Sometimes 
a  few  drops  of  whisky  in  warm  water  is  given  chilled 
lambs.  It  is  surprising  how  much  a  hot  bath  will  revive 
cold  wet  lambs,  and  the  method  is  worth  trial,  no  matter  how 
limp  the  lamb. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  some  provision  in  advance,  to  care 
for  twin  lambs;  for  often  one  will  chill  while  the  dam  is  nursing 
the  other.  To  do  this  provide  a  box,  say  two  feet  square  and 
eighteen  inches  deep,  placing  five  inches  of  bran  in  it.  While 
the  ewe  is  nursing  one  lamb,  the  other  may  be  placed  in  the  warm 
bran,  and  all  covered  but  the  nose ;  this  will  keep  the  lamb  warm 
and  help  to  dry  it.  After  a  time  return  to  the  ewe.  In  licking 
off  the  bran  she  will  own  it.  In  the  absence  of  the  bran,  a  jug 
of  hot  water  may  be  placed  in  the  box  with  the  lamb,  and  a 
blanket  thrown  over  the  top  of  the  box. 

A  disowned  lamb.  —  Occasionally  a  young  ewe,  or  an  old  one 
very  thin  in  flesh,  will  neglect  or  disown  her  lamb,  and  refuse 
to  care  for  it.  Usually  the  ewe  will  take  to  the  lamb  if  she  is 
held  while  the  lamb  nurses.  To  hold  the  ewe,  a  small  stanchion 
should  be  constructed.  The  stanchion  may  consist  simply  of 
two  green  stakes,  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter,  driven 
into  the  ground  and  held  at  the  top  with  a  piece  of  rope  or  strap. 
Sometimes  a  little  meal  placed  on  the  lamb  will  induce  the 
ewe  to  nurse  it  and  to  claim  it. 

Occasionally  a  ewe  will  lose  her  lamb,  and  have  her  udder 
filled  with  milk.  At  the  same  time,  there  may  be  other  ewes  in 
the  flock  with  twins,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  give  one  of  the  twins 
to  a  ewe  that  has  lost  her  lamb.  Sometimes  difficulty  is  experi- 
enced in  getting  her  to  own  it.  The  ewe  may  be  placed  in 
a  stanchion;  if  she  still  refuses,  the  lamb  may  be  washed  to  re- 
move its  odor,  then  some  of  the  ewe's  milk  placed  on  its  head 
and  back,  at  the  same  time  placing  some  of  the  ewe's  milk  on 
her  own  nose,  when  she  will  often  own  the  lamb. 


416  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Lamb  ills 

Having  made  its  appearance  into  the  world,  with  or  without 
difficulty,  the  lamb  is  still  subject  to  many  troubles,  chief  of 
which  are  diarrhea,  constipation,  sore  mouth,  and  contagious 
sore  eyes.  The  extent  of  these  troubles  will  clepeud  largely  on 
the  care  given  the  ewe  while  she  is  nursing  the  lamb.  By  proper 
management  these  troubles  may  be  materially  reduced,  and  in 
many  cases  entirely  avoided.  The  ewes  should  be  kept  in  dry, 
well  ventilated,  well  lighted  quarters,  permitted  to  take  exercise 
in  a  dry  or  well  bedded  lot,  and  fed  healthy,  nutritious  foods. 

Constipation  may  be  caused  by  the  lamb  getting  too  much 
milk,  or  to  difficult  teething,  in  which  latter  case  the  gums 
should  be  rubbed  until  the  teeth  are  through.  When  constipa- 
tion prevails,  reduce  the  ewe's  grain  ration.  It  may  be  necessary 
partly  to  milk  the  ewe.  If  this  does  not  afford  relief,  inject  in 
the  rectum  a  small  amount,  not  to  exceed  two  ounces,  of  warm 
water,  to  which  a  little  glycerine  has  been  added.  Do  not  inject 
too  much,  and  do  not  use  soap  suds. 

Diarrhea  is  often  caused  by  overfeeding.  When  the  lamb  is 
troubled  with  diarrhea  or  scouring,  the  treatment  is  to  milk  the 
ewe,  in  part,  remembering  that  the  last  milk  is  the  richer  in  fat, 
the  element  causing  the  disturbance.  The  ewe's  grain  ration 
should  be  reduced.  If  the  ewes  are  running  on  pasture,  feed  some 
timothy  hay  scattered  on  the  grass  or  placed  in  racks  conven- 
iently located.  If  the  scours  persist,  or  if  the  discharge  is  white, 
then  a  mild,  healing  laxative  and  tonic  should  be  given.  Mix 
one-fourth  ounce  of  common  cooking  soda,  one  ounce  of  sulfate 
of  magnesia,  and  as  much  ground  ginger  as  can  be  taken  up  on  a 
penny,  with  one-half  pint  of  gruel,  and  give  as  a  drench.  In  four 
hours  follow  with  a  dose  of  one  ounce  of  linseed  oil. 

"Pinning"  is  due  to  an  accumulation  of  excrement  at  the 
vent  and  tail  in  such  a  manner  that  the  proper  function  of 
the  bowels  cannot  be  performed.  The  treatment  is  to  remove 
the  filth  from  the  parts,  and  dust  with  powdered  chalk. 


THE  BREEDING   OF  SHEEP  417 

Sore  mouth.  —  Often  lambs  are  troubled  with  a  kind  of  conta- 
gious sore  mouth,  which  affects  the  teats  of  the  ewes  as  well. 
These  sores  form  scabs  along  the  edges  of  the  mouth,  and  small 
sores  on  the  teats  of  the  ewe.  This  often  becomes  so  serious 
as  to  interfere  with  the  thrift  of  the  lamb.  The  treatment  is 
to  rub  off  the  scabs  and  apply  undiluted  coal-tar  dip,  of  which 
there  are  many  kinds  on  the  market,  such  as  are  mentioned  on 
page  426.     This  will  effect  a  complete  cure. 

Sore  eyes.  —  Like  sore  mouth,  this  is  a  contagious  disease; 
and,  while  often  interfering  seriously  with  the  thrift  of  the  lambs, 
is  very  easily  cured.  One  of  the  coal-tar  dips  diluted  with  forty 
parts  water  used  as  a  wash  will  work  a  rapid  cure.  It  is  well 
to  see  that  a  little  of  the  diluted  dip  gets  into  the  eyes ;  this  may 
start  the  tears,  but  it  has  the  desired  effect. 

General  care  of  lambs 

Feeding  the  lambs.  —  Lambs  early  begin  to  nibble  at  hay  and 
grain,  and  advantage  should  be  taken  of  this  to  encourage  them 
to  eat  solid  food.  During  lambhood  the  digestion  is  more 
thorough,  and  lambs  make  larger  gains  from  a  given  quantity 
of  food,  than  at  any  other  time.  Encourage  the  lamb  to  eat 
food  in  addition  to  that  furnished  by  the  dam.  Furthermore, 
this  extra  feeding  renders  weaning  a  very  easy  task.  At  the 
age  of  ten  da}rs  to  two  weeks  lambs  will  begin  to  eat  grain,  and 
special  provision  should  be  made  for  them.  For  .this  construct 
a  creep  (page  392).  Grain  should  be  put  down  twice  daily, 
and  no  more  than  the  lambs  will  consume,  as  it  will  become 
stale  if  left  in  the  boxes.  Lambs  that  have  been  well  fed  in 
every  way  always  mature  to  be  much  larger  and  stronger  with 
heavier  fleeces  than  the  others. 

Weaning  the  lambs.  —  Weaning  is  more  a  matter  of  prepara- 
tion than  of  actual  separation.  When  lambs  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  grain  as  suggested  and  when  they  can  have  access 
to  the  creeps  after  the  ewes  are  removed,  there  will  be  very  little 
2e 


418 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


shrinkage.  When  practicable,  the  ewes  should  be  removed,  leav- 
ing the  lambs  in  their  accustomed  place.  All  things  considered, 
it  is  better  that  the  separation  be  complete.  The  ewes  should 
be  carefully  watched  to  see  that  none  suffer  from  caked  udder. 
The  age  at  which  lambs  should  be  weaned  will  depend  on  the 


Fig.  137.  —  Horned  Dorset  Ram.     First  prize  and  champion  ram  at  four  State 
Fairs,  1909.     Owned  at  Heart's  Delight  Farm,  Chazy,  N.  Y. 

The  Horned  Dorset,  a  native  of  Dorset  County,  England,  while  noted  for  the 
production  of  both  mutton  and  wool,  is  more  especially  noted  for  prolificacy 
and  the  production  of  lambs  at  any  season  of  the  year.  No  breed  excels  the 
Dorsets  in  the  production  of  winter  lambs.  As  a  breed  the  animals  are 
hardy  and  good  grazers.  The  rams  average  200  pounds  and  the  ewes  160 
pounds.  They  shear  from  5  to  10  pounds  of  wool.  This  breed  is  popular  in 
the  United  States. 


object  sought.  When  spring  lambs  are  sought,  the  lambs  may 
run  with  the  ewes  until  sold,  but  for  other  lambs  it  is  better  to 
wean  at  three  or  four  months  of  age.  In  such  cases  the  lambs 
should  be  weaned  and  removed  from  the  old  pastures  before 


THE  BREEDING    OF  SHEEP  419 

there  is  danger  of  parasite  infection.  As  soon  as  weaned,  the 
lambs  should  be  placed  on  sown  pastures  as  suggested  in  the 
discussion  on  feeding  the  flock  in  summer  (page  381).  While 
this  is  often  neglected,  it  is  very  important,  for  after  the  young 
lambs  once  become  infected  with  germs,  they  are  not  likely  to 
thrive,  and  will  prove  a  failure.  Some  forethought  is  required 
in  arranging  and  sowing  the  pastures,  but  if  sheep  farming  is 
to  prove  profitable,  it  is  very  essential,  especially  throughout 
the  corn-belt  and  those  regions  subject  to  parasites. 

Castrating  male  lambs.  —  The  male  lambs  should  be  castrated 
at  ten  days  to  two  weeks  old,  as  they  will  suffer  less  if  operated 
at  this  time.  Lambs  intended  for  hot-house  trade  should  not  be 
castrated,  as  the  exposed  testicles  add  to  the  appearance  of  the 
carcass  when  on  the  market.  The  operation  is  not  difficult, 
and  there  is  practically  no  danger  of  injuring  the  lamb.  An 
assistant  should  hold  the  lamb  in  such  a  position  as  to  expose  the 
scrotum.  Sever  the  end  of  the  scrotum,  pinch  the  testicle  out, 
and  remove  with  the  adhering  cords.  The  scrotum  may  be 
rubbed  with  a  mixture  of  tallow  and  turpentine,  half  and  half, 
and  the  lamb  returned  to  the  dam. 

Docking  the  lambs.  —  Unless  the  lambs  are  to  be  sent  to  market 
under  three  months  of  age,  they  should  have  the  tail  removed. 
The  tail  is  of  no  use  to  the  sheep  and  is  likely  to  become  foul. 
Docked  lambs  thrive  better  than  undocked,  and  they  present  a 
fuller  and  squarer  appearance.  The  lambs  should  be  docked 
at  ten  days  to  two  weeks  of  age,  or  even  younger  if  strong. 
This  may  be  done  by  severing  the  tail  with  a  sharp  knife,  cut- 
ting from  the  under  side,  by  the  use  of  a  mallet  and  sharp  chisel; 
or,  better  still,  by  the  use  of  docking  pincers.  These  pincers 
resemble  the  ordinary  shoeing  pincers  and  may  be  made  by  any 
blacksmith.  The  edges  should  be  rather  thin,  with  the  back 
heavy  in  order  to  hold  heat,  for  by  heating  them  to  redness  and 
then  severing  the  tail  the  stump  will  bleed  but  little,  whereas  if 
the  tails  of  lambs  in  very  good  condition  are  severed  with  a 


420 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


sharp  instrument,  such  as  a  knife  or  chisel,  a  few  of  the  lambs 
may  bleed  to  death.  Bore  a  hole  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  the 
lamb's  tail  in  a  board,  and  when  ready  for  use,  heat  the  pincers 
to  redness,  pull  the  tail  through  the  hole  to  protect  the  lamb's 
rump,  and  sever  the  tail  quickly. 

Wing  suggests  to  make  the  pincers  large  enough  to  admit  a 
grown  ram's  scrotum,  and  when  it  is  desired  to  castrate  such  a 
ram,  protect  the  body  with  a  board  as  before  and  hold  up  the 
scrotum  and  slowly  sever  with  the  pincers  heated  to  redness. 


v 


/ 


Fig.   138.  —  Method   of  marking  Lambs   for  Future  Identification,  or 
until  Permanent  Tags  can  be  inserted  into  the  Ear. 


Marking  lambs.  —  To  avoid  errors  and  mistaken  identity 
the  young  lambs  should  be  marked  as  soon  as  possible  after 
birth.  Identifying  unmarked  lambs  is  a  difficult  task  and  one 
which  experienced  flock-masters  are  often  unable  to  do,  hence 
the  importance  of  marking  the  young  lamb.  The  young  lamb's 
ear  is  very  tender  and  will  not  carry  a  label  until  well  grown, 
so    a   temporary   marking    must    be    used.     There    are    two 


THE  BREEDING    OF  SHEEP  421 

successful  methods  of  marking  sheep,  —  by  the  use  of  water- 
proof ink,  and  by  notching  the  ear.  Procure  a  small  brush 
and  some  waterproof  ink,  or  regular  sheep-marking  fluid,  and 
place  on  the  lamb  the  number  on  the  ear  tag  of  the  ewe.  If 
this  method  is  used,  it  will  be  necessary  to  renew  the  number, 
as  it  will  fade  as  the  lamb  grows. 

Some  persons  prefer  to  notch  the  ear  of  the  lamb,  as  it  is 
likely  to  be  more  permanent.  The  ordinary  ear  punch  is 
used  to  mark  the  ear,  and  the  following  method  is  as  good  as 
any :  —  The  first  lamb  would  have  one  notch  in  the  top  of 
the  left  ear  next  to  the  head;  the  second,  one  notch  in  the 
middle;  the  third,  one  notch  in  the  end;  the  fifth,  one  notch 
on  the  lower  side,  and  so  on,  up  to  400.  Then  when  permanent 
ear  markings  are  desired,  they  may  be  inserted  when  convenient 
and  the  record  inserted  in  the  flock  book.     (See  Fig.  138.) 


CHAPTER  XIX 
CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    SHEEP 

The  ability  to  care  for  sheep  successfully  is  a  faculty  to  be 
increased  and  strengthened  by  careful  study  and  experience. 
All  that  may  be  written  is  of  no  consequence  without  practice. 
The  timidity  of  sheep,  dainty  appetites,  inability  to  endure 
dampness,  draughts,  mud  lots,  as  well  as  their  liability  to  para- 
site infection,  must  be  well  understood  by  those  who  expect  to 
make  sheep  growing  profitable.  The  knowledge  is  very  easy 
to  obtain,  and  methods  of  combating  are  not  difficult,  but  they 
demand  persistent  effort  on  the  part  of  the  sheep  owner. 

Sheep  may  be  successfully  grown  on  any  general  farm  or  where 
there  is  an  opportunity  for  changes  in  grazing.  When  the 
farm  has  the  equipment  and  is  conveniently  located  to  a  rail- 
road leading  to  one  of  our  larger  cities,  winter-lamb  production 
may  be  most  profitable,  whereas  if  the  farm  lacks  equipment 
and  has  much  cheap  grazing  land,  some  other  form  of  sheep 
production  would  doubtless  yield  the  greater  profit.  Each 
farmer  must  make  a  careful  study  of  his  conditions,  such  as 
location,  facilities  for  shipping,  demands  of  his  market,  condi- 
tion of  the  soil,  and  the  like,  then  lay  his  plans  accordingly. 

Wherever  the  farm,  whatever  the  conditions,  whenever  sheep 
growing  is  to  be  practiced,  ample  provision  must  be  made  for 
change  in  pasture.  Sheep  may  live,  or  at  least  the  older  ones 
may,  without  change,  but  if  put  into  a  pasture  in  the  spring, 
and  compelled  to  remain  there  until  fall,  they  will  never  attain 
the  size  they  would  have  attained  had  there  been  a  frequent 
change  of  pasture.     Where  sheep  are  thus  pastured,  the  lambs 

422 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  bHEEP 


423 


often  perish  as  a  result  of  parasites.  Sheep  profit  by  a  change 
of  pasture  even  if,  so  far  as  the  pasture  is  concerned,  the 
change  is  from  a  good  to  a  poor  one. 

DIPPING    SHEEP 

Dipping  the  sheep  is  an  essential  part  of  sheep  growing. 
No  farmer  should  attempt  to  raise  sheep  without  planning  to 
dip  the  sheep,  not  only  upon  their  arrival  at  the  farm,  but 
twice  annually  thereafter.  Fortunately  the  process  is  very 
simple  as  well  as  inexpensive. 

Importance  of  dipping.  —  There  are  two  essential  reasons  why 
all  sheep  should  be  dipped:  first,  to  free  them  of  ticks;  and 
second,  to  free  them  of  scab 
germs.  It  is  absolutely  impossi- 
ble for  lambs  infected  with  ticks 
or  other  parasites  to  thrive.  A 
good  dip  cleanses  the  skin,  in- 
creases the  quantity  and  im- 
proves the  quality  of  the  wool. 
From  this  it  is  apparent  that  all 
sheep,  whether  foundation  stock 
or  lambs  intended  for  fattening, 
should  be  dipped  immediately 
upon  their  arrival  on  the  farm. 

Sheep  ticks    can    be    entirely 
overcome    by    dipping.      Sheep 

ticks  inhabit  no  other  farm  animals,  and  once  eradicated,  there 
is  no  possible  chance  of  their  reappearing  unless  brought  to  the 
flock  on  infested  sheep,  or  carried  in  some  manner,  as  in  the 
clothing  of  shearers,  from  an  infested  flock. 

Sheep  scab  can  likewise  be  prevented  by  dipping.  This  scab 
is  caused  by  a  minute  parasite,  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked 
eye,  which  irritates  the  skin,  causing  a  watery  exudate.  This 
exudate  forms  a  crust  beneath  which  the  scab  mite  burrows, 


Fig.  139.  —  Horned  Dorset  Ewe. 
Owned  by  Heart's  Delight  Farm. 


424  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

greatly  irritating  the  animal,  causing  loss  of  flesh,  intense  itch- 
ing, loss  of  wool,  and  frequently  results  in  death  to  the  sheep. 
Sheep  affected  with  scab  are  uneasy,  pawing  with  the  foot  and 
biting  at  the  affected  parts,  which  are  usually  along  the  neck  and 
shoulders.  If  such  an  animal  be  carefully  examined,  the  wool  and 
skin  will  appear  abnormal  at  the  affected  parts.  A  slight  exu- 
date is  noticed  which  later  forms  a  scab,  which  rapidly  spreads. 
The  mite  is  transferred  from  one  sheep  to  another  and  soon  the 
entire  flock  is  affected. 

Common  places  for  sheep  to  become  infected  with  the  scab 
mite  are  in  the  stock-yards,  railroad  stock-pens,  and  in  stock- 
cars,  unless  well  disinfected.  As  they  multiply  very  rapidly, 
a  few  parasites  gathered  up  in  this  way  will  soon  run  through 
an  entire  flock.  When  once  the  sheep  become  affected  and 
scabs  formed,  the  disease  is  hard  to  eradicate.  If  taken  in 
time,  prevention  is  very  easy.  Hence  the  importance  of  dip- 
ping all  newly  purchased  sheep  before  they  infect  the  farm  or 
the  flock. 

The  dipping  vat.  —  The  nature  of  the  dipping  vat  or  tank  will 
be  determined  largely  by  the  size  of  the  flock.  For  a  small 
flock  such  as  is  kept  on  the  average  farm,  a  simple  trough  of  wood, 
metal,  or  concrete,  16  inches  wide  at  the  top  and  6  inches  at  the 
bottom,  4  feet  deep,  and  8  to  12  feet  long,  will  prove  ample. 
The  vat  must  be  narrow  so  the  sheep  cannot  turn  around ;  must 
be  deep  so  they  can  be  plunged  clear  under  and  no  spot  escape  the 
dip ;  and  the  longer  the  vat,  the  quicker  the  dipping  can  be  per- 
formed, as  each  animal  should  remain  in  the  dip  at  least  one 
minute.  The  end  of  the  vat  at  which  the  sheep  enter  should  be 
perpendicular,  so  that  they  may  be  made  to  jump  in  the  dip  and 
thus  be  completely  submerged.  At  the  other  end,  there  should 
be  a  gradual  incline  up  which  the  sheep  can  walk.  Here  an  in- 
cline platform  should  be  constructed,  so  that  the  drippings  of  the 
dipped  sheep  may  be  returned  to  the  vat,  otherwise  much  of  the 
dip  will  be  wasted,  particularly  if  the  wool  is  long.     On  farms 


CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF  SHEEP 


425 


where  sheep  are  to  be  kept  continuously  the  vat  should  be  con- 
structed in  the  ground.  This  will  facilitate  getting  the  sheep  in 
and  out,  and  in  many  clay  soils  will  last  a  lifetime.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  such  a  vat,  do  not  neglect  to  dip  the  sheep  upon  their 
arrival  at  the  farm,  for  trouble  will  surely  follow.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  anything  better,  use  an  ordinary  water-trough,  one  man 
holding  the  sheep  by  the  forelegs,  another  by  the  hind  legs,  and 


v 


Fig.  140.  —  Cheviots.     True  to  type.     Owned  by  G.  W.  Parnell. 

The  Cheviot  breed  of  sheep  originated  in  Scotland.  The  breed  is  noted  for  the 
production  of  wool  and  mutton.  The  sheep  are  comparatively  small,  but  very 
hardy  and  excellent  grazers.  In  appearance  the  animals  are  neat  and  trim. 
Mature  rams  average  about  175  pounds  and  the  ewes  150  pounds.  They  will 
shear  from  6  to  11  pounds  of  medium-length  wool. 


dip  backs  first.  See  that  the  head  is  immersed.  The  dip 
will  run  down  the  legs  when  the  sheep  are  permitted  to  stand. 
This  is  crude  but  to  be  preferred  to  no  dipping  and  the  farm 
becoming  infested  with  ticks  and  scab,  which  it  surely  will  if 
dipping  new  arrivals  is  neglected. 

How  dips  are  used:  —  The  dip  must  be  hot.     The  best  tem- 
perature is  that  which  a  man  can  endure  with  the  bare  arm. 


426  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

If  the  dip  is  too  hot,  it  will  scald;  if  too  cold,  it  will  be  less 
effective.  The  water  may  be  heated  in  a  large  kettle  and  kept 
hot  by  throwing  red-hot  irons  or  heated  stones  into  the  tank. 
This  is  a  very  convenient  way  to  heat  the  dip  if  any  remains  in 
the  tank.  The  water  should  be  softened  by  the  addition  of 
enough  concentrated  lye  to  give  it  an  oily  feeling  like  soap 
suds,  or  by  the  addition  of  wood  ashes. 

The  best  dip  to  use  is  some  one  of  the  coal-tar  preparations,  as 
Zenoleum,  Naptholeum,  Daytholeum,  Milk  Oil,  and  the  like. 
These  are  fairly  cheap,  very  effective,  cleansing  to  the  skin,  heal- 
ing to  diseased  eyes  and  mouth,  pleasant  to  use,  and  sure  death 
to  all  forms  of  parasite  life.  The  direction  given  on  the  cans  in 
which  the  coal-tar  comes  is  to  use  at  a  strength  of  one  part 
of  dip  to  100  parts  water.  While  this  is  strong  enough  to  kill 
ticks,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  remove  scab  germs.  When  the  sheep 
have  first  arrived  or  when  dipping  for  scab,  use  one  part  dip  to 
40  parts  water. 

When  dipping  for  ticks,  one  minute  is  sufficient  length  of  time 
for  the  sheep  to  remain  in  the  solution.  When  dipping  new  ar- 
rivals or  for  scab,  the  sheep  should  remain  in  the  dip  two  minutes 
and  the  head  should  be  immersed  twice.  With  the  dip  hot,  the 
water  softened,  the  dip  used  at  a  strength  of  1  to  40,  and  the 
sheep  left  in  for  two  minutes,  all  external  parasitic  life  will  be 
destroyed.  If  scab  is  suspected,  the  dipping  should  be  repeated 
in  eight  to  ten  days,  as  the  dip  will  not  kill  the  eggs,  and  a  second 
dipping  is  essential  completely  to  eradicate  the  scab  mites. 

Frequency  of  dipping.  —  All  sheep  arriving  at  the  farm  should 
be  dipped  before  they  infect  the  lots.  In  addition  to  this  the 
entire  flock  should  be  dipped  at  least  once  a  year,  and  it  will  be 
the  better  for  it  if  dipped  twice  annually.  One  dipping  should 
take  place  soon  after  shearing,  as  less  dip  will  be  required.  It 
should  not,  however,  follow  too  closely  after  shearing.  A 
pleasant  day  should  be  selected,  and  the  sheep  should  be  well 
protected  until  dry.     It  will  take  them  several  hours  to  dry 


CAEE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP  427 

out.  At  this  time  it  should  not  take  more  than  one  quart  of 
the  mixture  to  a  sheep,  whereas  if  the  sheep  is  not  shorn,  it 
will  take  approximately  one  gallon.  The  second  dipping  should 
be  in  the  fall,  some  fair  day  just  before  the  sheep  are  placed 
in  their  winter  quarters.  This  second  dipping  will  pay  be- 
cause of  its  invigorating  influence,  even  though  the  sheep  are 
free  from  ticks.  By  all  means,  the  sheep  should  be  dipped  at 
once  on  the  outbreak  of  scab  unless  in  the  very  severest  of  winter 
weather. 

SHEARING   SHEEP 

Formerly  it  was  the  custom  to  wash  the  sheep  before  shearing 
and  shear  later  in  the  season  than  at  present.  This  was  in  the 
days  of  the  spinning  wheel  and  hand  loom.  The  practice  of 
washing  the  wool  was  continued  somewhat  later,  for  it  was 
thought  that  it  prepared  the  wool  for  the  manufacture.  This 
it  did  not  do,  but  it  did  render  the  wool  lighter  by  removing  the 
natural  oil  and  hence  was  a  distinct  disadvantage  to  the  farmer. 

Washing  sheep.  —  At  the  present  time  comparatively  few 
sheep  are  washed  before  shearing,  though  in  some  localities  it  is 
still  profitable,  as  buyers  discriminate  against  unwashed  wool. 
The  washing  is  usually  done  in  a  brook.  The  water  should  be 
about  waist  deep,  the  bottom  of  the  brook  sandy,  gravelly,  or 
rocky,  and  free  from  mud,  and  the  shore  firm,  clean,  and  grassy. 
There  should  be  sufficient  current  to  carry  the  dirt  away  when 
pressed  out  of  the  wool.  A  small  inclosure  near  the  shore  re- 
strains the  sheep ;  one  man  catches  the  sheep,  a  second  tags 
them  and  removes  the  filth  from  the  hind-quarters,  while  the 
third  man  washes.  The  washer  leads  the  sheep  into  the  water 
beyond  its  depth.  The  sheep  is  easily  handled.  Attention 
should  be  given  all  parts  of  the  fleece.  The  wool  is  pressed 
between  the  open  hands,  which  removes  the  dirt  and  discolors 
the  water.  When  no  further  discoloration  can  be  produced, 
the  sheep  is  removed  to  the  shore.     The  animal  should  be  held 


428  MANUAL   OF  FABM  ANIMALS 

until  slightly  drained  to  prevent  it  from  falling  as  a  result  of 
the  weight  of  the  water  in  the  fleece.  The  flock  should  then 
be  kept  in  a  clean  place  for  at  least  one  week  to  permit  the 
yolk  or  oil  to  be  replaced. 

When  to  shear.  —  The  time  for  shearing  will  depend  somewhat 
on  the  conditions.  If  winter  lambs  are  sought,  the  shearing 
should  be  done  in  March  or  before,  whereas  if  there  is  no  hurry 
about  the  lambs  and  the  sheep  are  not  well  protected,  the  wool 
may  be  left  on  until  warm  weather.  With  the  coming  of  warm 
weather  the  wool  must  be  removed  or  the  sheep  will  not  thrive. 
When  at  all  practicable,  early  shearing  is  to  be  recommended,  as 
the  sheep  will  do  much  better.  If  troubled  with  ticks,  they  will 
leave  as  soon  as  the  sheep  are  shorn,  though  in  this  case  it  is  well 
to  see  that  the  ticks  do  not  go  to  the  lambs.  The  amount  of 
wool  taken  off  will  be  greater  if  the  sheep  are  shorn  regularly  in 
March  or  April  than  if  shorn  in  June.  Where  washing  the  wool 
is  practiced,  the  sheep  cannot  be  shorn  until  warm  weather  as 
it  is  unsafe  to  wash  the  animals  in  the  late  winter  or  early 
spring. 

Hand  shearing.  —  Hand  shearing  requires  much  skill  and  con- 
siderable practice.  A  good  man  will  shear  from  40  to  100  sheep 
in  a  day,  using  common  hand  shears.  Many  experts  shear  upon 
the  floor,  though  some  prefer  a  platform.  The  work  should 
be  done  in  a  light,  airy  place.  While  each  shearer  has  his  own 
method,  it  is  some  modification  of  the  following :  The  sheep  is 
placed  on  its  rump  with  its  back  to  the  shearer  supported  by 
the  left  arm,  with  the  shears  in  the  right  hand.  The  wool  is 
then  removed  from  the  brisket  and  neck  down  to  the  shoulders. 
The  fleece  is  then  opened  down  the  abdomen  and  first  clipped 
on  the  left  side  as  far  around  as  the  back  bone  and  then  on  the 
right  side  in  a  similar  manner,  all  the  time  exercising  much  care 
in  keeping  the  fleece  together.  Care  must  be  exercised  not  to 
cut  too  deep  at  one  stroke  or  the  sheep  will  not  be  smooth.  The 
points  of  the  shears  must  be  kept  close  to  the  hide,  otherwise  a 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP  429 

second  stroke  will  be  necessary,  which  injures  the  wool  and  takes 
much  time. 

In  some  regions  it  is  customary  to  tie  the  fore  and  hind  legs 
of  the  sheep  to  a  board  in  such  a  manner  that  the  animal  cannot 
kick,  placing  it  on  a  low  platform,  and  in  this  position  reliev- 
ing it  of  its  wool.  Such  practice  is  condemned  by  all  experi- 
enced sheep  owners. 

For  the  beginner  to  shear  a  sheep  by  hand  is  really  a  very 
difficult  task,  and  if  the  sheep  be  a  fine-wool,  the  task  is  still 
greater. 

Machinery  shearing.  — Shearing  sheep  with  a  machine  is  a  very 
much  more  easy  task  than  shearing  by  hand,  and  the  beginner 
can  do  very  much  better  work  with  it.  On  the  market  there 
are  both  hand  and  power  machines,  but  on  the  average  farm 
the  hand  machine  is,  of  course,  the  one  to  use.  To  operate  the 
machine  requires  two  men  or  a  man  and  boy,  —  one  to  turn  the 
machine,  the  other  to  shear  the  sheep.  If  available,  the  be- 
ginner should  take  a  coarse-wooled  sheep,  as  the  fine-wools  are 
more  difficult  to  shear.  With  a  rather  coarse-wooled  sheep  one 
can  follow  the  directions  and  shear  the  sheep,  even  though  he 
has  never  seen  the  operation.  Most  sheep  are  now  shorn  by 
a  machine. 

With  the  sheep  before  you  and  facing  to  the  left,  grasp  it  by 
the  right  hind  leg  with  the  left  hand  and  gently  but  firmly  place 
it  on  its  rump,  in  an  upright  position,  the  shoulders  resting  against 
the  shearers  knees,  with  the  machine  to  the  right.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  remember  that  the  sheep  should  always  be  turned  to  the 
right.  With  a  little  experience  this  can  be  done  with  the  feet, 
leaving  the  hands  free  for  the  real  work.  Another  essential 
always  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  to  hold  the  sheep  in  such  a  way 
that  the  skin  is  stretched  tight  on  the  part  of  the  body  that  is 
being  sheared.  Never  place  the  left  hand  in  front  of  the  shears, 
as  you  will  surely  cut  the  sheep  (if  you  are  right-handed). 

With  the  sheep  held  firmly  between  the  knees,  part  the  wool  at 


430 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.    141.  —  Shearing   Sheep   by    Machinery,  showing  Position   of   the 
Sheep,  Shearer,  and  the  Machine. 


r^,** 


Fig.    142.  —  Position  while        Fig.   143.  —  Position   while    shearing  Left 
shearing  Abdomen.  Hind  Leg. 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT   OF  SHEEP 


431 


jfc« 


Fig.  144. 


Position  while  shear- 
ing Neck. 


the  forward  end  of  the  brisket  and  run  the  shears  down  as  far  as 

the  pit  of  the  stomach.    Clip  the  wool  from  the  floor  of  chest,  as 

in  illustration   (Fig.  141).     Place 

the  front  legs  behind  the  left  arm 

and   run   four   swaths  down  the 

right  side  from  the   fore  legs  to 

the  flank.     Next  run  the   shears 

across   the    belly   from   right   to 

left,  clipping  the  wool  from  the 

belly   and    flank,    as   in   illustra- 
tions (Figs.  142  and  143). 

Straighten  up  the  sheep,  resting 

the  head  against  the  knee  as  at 

first,  take  hold  of  the  sheep  as  in 

illustration    (Fig.    144),    and  clip 

the  wool  along  the  under  side  of 

the  neck,  starting  the  shears  at  the  brisket,  and  run  upwards, 

coming  out  just  below  the  ear.     Clip  the  wool  from  the  neck. 

as  in  illustration  (Fig.  145), 
With  the  feet  turn  the  sheep 
slightly  to  the  right,  the  sheep's 
feet  pointing  towards  the  ma- 
chine, and  clip  the  wool  from 
the  side  and  the  back,  as  in 
illustrations  (Figs.  146,  147). 

Turn  the  sheep  to  the  right 
so  that  its  back  rests  next  to 
the  machine  and  clip  the  other 
side,  as  in  illustrations  (Figs. 
148,  149,  and  150).  Take  ex- 
tra care  all  the  time  to  keep 
the     hide     stretched     tightly 

where  the  shears  are  working,  otherwise  the  sheep  will  not  be 

smooth,  and  in   addition  there  is  danger  of  cutting  the  skin. 


Fig.  145.  —  Position  while  shearing 
Left  Shoulder. 


Fig.   146.  —  .Position  while  shearing  Left 
Side. 


Fig.  147.  —  Position  while  shearing 
Rump. 


*«Sfe8kv 


&5 


Fig.    148.  —  Position      while 
shearing  Right  Shoulder. 


Fig.    150.  —  Position  while  finishing 
Sheep. 


Fig.  149.  —  Position    while    shearing 
Right  Side. 


*!  * 


Fig.  151.  —  Position  of  Wool 
when  Finished.  Cut  ends 
out  and  loose  pieces  within. 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP  433 

Gather  up  the  wool,  as  in  illustration  (Fig.  151).  With  a 
little  practice  the  task  of  shearing  with  a  good  machine  will 
be  more  easily  accomplished  than  it  is  to  explain. 

Tying  the  ivool.  —  The  fleece  is  rolled  with  the  belly  and  loose 
ends  inside,  the  cut  ends  out.  All  very  dirty  pieces  should  be 
removed  and  never  tied  up  in  the  wool.  Special  wool  twine 
should  be  used  to  tie  the  fleece,  as  binder  twine  greatly  injures 
the  wool,  for  small  bits  of  the  fiber  often  get  into  the  fleece  and, 
not  taking  the  dyes,  must  be  picked  out  by  hand.  There  is  no 
need  of  a  wool-box  for  tying  a  compact  bundle,  as  buyers  prefer 
the  fleece  loosely  tied. 

For  those  who  prefer  the  wool-box,  a  very  convenient  one  is 
made  as  follows :  Secure  five  pieces  of  boards ;  three,  each  one 
foot  square,  the  other  two  each  three  feet  long  and  one  foot  wide. 
Of  the  three  pieces  one  is  to  serve  as  the  bottom  of  the  box,  the 
other  two  as  the  ends,  and  they  should  be  hinged  together  ac- 
cordingly. The  other  two  boards  are  likewise  hinged  to  the 
bottom  piece,  so  that  when  all  are  raised,  they  form  a  neat  wool- 
box. 

Later  the  wool  is  packed  in  large  sacks  for  shipment.  In  filling 
the  large  bags  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  wool  is 
well  packed  and  the  corners  all  well  filled.  After  being  packed 
full  the  bags  are  sewed  at  the  top.  If  stored,  the  wool  should  be 
put  in  a  dry  place  where  there  is  no  danger  of  mice  cutting  the 
bags  and  building  nests  of  the  wool. 

PRACTICAL   SHEEP   BARNS 

Proper  shelter  for  the  flock  adds  greatly  to  its  comfort  and 
thrift.  It  need  not,  however,  be  either  elaborate  or  costly.  In 
the  sheep  barn  there  are  several  factors  that  must  be  provided 
for,  but  extra  warmth  not  being  one  of  the  factors,  the  rest 
is  comparatively  simple  and  inexpensive.  Chief  among  the 
factors  for  which  provision  must  be  made  are  ventilation  with- 
out draughts,  sunshine,  drainage,  convenience  for  feeding,  ar- 
2f 


434  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

rangements  for  separating  the  ewes  at  lambing  time,  storage 
for  grain  and  hay,  and,  if  possible,  a  root  cellar. 

The  ventilation  of  the  sheep  barn  should  receive  careful 
consideration.  This  must  be  so  arranged  that  there  are  no 
draughts,  as  such  will  result  in  colds,  running  at  the  nose,  ca- 
tarrh, and  like  troubles.  Many  experienced  sheep  owners  pre- 
fer to  ventilate  the  sheep  quarters  by  placing  doors  across  one 
side  of  the  barn.  These  doors  are  divided  in  halves  horizontally, 
the  lower  part  of  the  door  swinging  as  an  ordinary  gate  swings, 
while  the  upper  half  is  hinged  at  the  upper  edge.  The  top  half 
is  opened  by  lifting  to  a  horizontal  position  and  held  by  props 
or  pendant  chains.  By  raising  the  upper  halves  and  closing  the 
lower,  the  ventilation  can  be  made  so  thorough  that  the  inside  air 
is  as  pure  as  that  on  the  outside,  and  since  the  doors  are  all  on  one 
side  of  the  barn,  there  is  freedom  from  draughts.  If  the  sheep 
have  the  run  of  these  quarters  in  summer,  it  is  well  to  open  both 
top  and  bottom  doors,  arranging  a  slat  door  on  the  inside  to  re- 
strain the  sheep.  During  the  heat  of  summer,  a  blind  is  fastened 
over  the  windows  and  doors  to  keep  out  the  sun's  rays  and 
slightly  to  darken  the  quarters,  as  sheep  prefer  this  to  the 
daylight. 

An  abundance  of  sunshine  is  essential  to  the  well  being  of  the 
breeding  flock  in  winter.  Sunshine  is  nature's  greatest  disinfec- 
tant, and  keeps  the  quarters  light  and  cheery.  If  the  row  of 
doors  arranged  for  ventilation  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  quar- 
ters, as  it  should  be,  it  will  admit  sufficient  sunshine  on  days  when 
the  doors  can  be  kept  open.  It  is  often  necessary  to  close  them  on 
account  of  the  severity  of  the  weather,  just  after  shearing,  or  just 
after  dipping,  and  in  such  cases  extra  windows  are  very  conven- 
ient. These  may  preferably  be  placed  along  the  south  side  be- 
tween the  doors,  as  then  they  will  serve  their  maximum  efficiency . 

In  selecting  a  site  for  the  sheep  barn,  due  consideration  should 
be  given  to  drainage.  Sheep  cannot  survive  damp  and  muddy 
footing.     Wet  floors  and  muddy  lots  are  to  be  avoided.     If 


CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP 


435 


possible,  select  ground  from  which  there  is  a  little  slope  in  all 
directions,  facing  the  barn  to  the  south  and  arranging  the  lots 
on  the  south  slope.  It  would  be  of  much  advantage  to  have 
the  place  protected  on  the  north  and  west  by  a  grove  or  bluff. 
In  arranging  the  sheep  quarters,  convenience  of  feeding  must 
be  kept  in  mind.  This  factor  is  often  complicated  by  the  desir- 
ability of  having  provision  for  separating  the  ewes  at  lambing 
time.  As  a  rule,  it  is  more  difficult  to  feed  the  sheep  in  two  lots 
than  in  one.     This  difficulty  can  often  be  overcome,  in  large 


Fig.  152.  —  Sheep  Barn;    Interior  View,  showing  Arrangement  of  Feed- 
rack  and  Method  of  dividing  the  Pens. 


part  at  least,  by  using  the  feed-rack  as  a  partition  for  the  two 
pens.  Such  an  arrangement  also  saves  the  material  otherwise 
necessary  for  the  partition.  To  facilitate  labor  in  feeding,  ample 
provision  should  be  made  for  storage  of  all  feed,  hay,  and  straw 
in  the  loft,  grain  in  a  bin  on  the  ground  floor,  and  if  possible, 
a  cellar  for  the  storage  of  roots.  Where  convenient,  water  should 
be  placed  in  the  barn. 

The  size  of  the  sheep  barn  will  depend  entirely  on  the  number 
of  sheep  in  the  flock.     Experienced  sheep  owners  do  not  agree  as 


436  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

to  the  amount  of  space  required,  some  stating  that  ten  square 
feet  is  sufficient,  others  that  they  desire  eighteen  square  feet  for 
each  animal.  In  practice,  twelve  square  feet  of  floor  space  will 
be  ample  for  each  breeding  ewe. 

The  feed-racks.  —  Movable  feed-racks  are  to  be  preferred. 
They  should  be  comparatively  long  and  narrow  and,  as  suggested, 
may  be  used  as  partitions  between  the  pens,  thus  economizing 
on  material,  and  the  racks  may  be  used  in  different  places  if 
desired.  A  very  good  combination  hay-rack  and  grain-trough 
is  made  as  follows :  With  l"X8"  boards  for  the  bottoms  and 
l"  X  4"  boards  for  the  sides  and  ends,  construct  two  grain- 
troughs.  Place  these  side  by  side  and  fasten  together.  Or 
make  one  shallow  trough  16  inches  wide  and  put  a  partition  in  it 
longways,  thus  making  two  shallow  grain-boxes.  With  2"  X 
4"  scahtling  and  l"  X  10"  boards  construct  a  frame  2  feet 
wide  at  the  top  and  as  long  as  the  grain-troughs,  to  serve  as  the 
top  of  the  hay-rack.  Now  on  the  center  partition  of  the  grain- 
boxes  nail  l"  X  2"  slats  30  inches  long,  placing  them  V-shaped 
and  nail  to  the  frame  above,  thus  making  a  hay-rack.  These 
slats  may  be  placed  7  inches  apart  in  order  that  the  sheep  may 
thrust  their  heads  clear  into  the  rack  to  feed.  If  the  slats  are 
placed  closer  together,  say  3  inches  apart,  as  is  often  the  case, 
the  sheep  pull  the  hay  through  the  cracks  and  drop  much  of  it 
under  their  feet.  We  now  have  a  combination  grain-  and  hay- 
rack which,  when  properly  braced,  makes  a  very  efficient  feed- 
rack  for  the  breeding  flock.  When  it  comes  to  forced  feeding,  as 
in  fattening  lambs,  such  a  rack  has  the  objection  that  more  or 
less  dirt  filters  down  into  the  grain-troughs,  and  the  sheep  with 
their  dainty  appetites  do  not  feed  as  well  as  when  the  grain- 
troughs  and  the  hay-rack  are  separated. 

Quantity  of  bedding.  —  Bedding  should  be  used  very  liberally 
in  both  the  sheep  barn  and  at  least  a  part  of  the  lot.  A  fresh 
supply  should  be  put  down  every  few  days.  There  is  much  dis- 
agreement among  experienced  sheep  owners  as  to  the  frequency 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP 


437 


of  cleaning  the  sheep  barn.  Some  state  that  they  would  rather 
keep  adding  fresh  bedding  and  not  remove  the  litter  from  the 
time  the  sheep  go  into  the  winter  quarters  in  the  fall  until 
turned  to  pasture  in  the  spring.     Their  chief  objection  to  remov- 


Fig.  153.  —  Leicester  Yearling  Ewe. 

The  Leicester  breed  of  sheep  developed  in  Leicester  county,  England.  The 
breed  is  noted  for  the  production  of  mutton  and  wool.  In  weight,  the  rams 
average  225  pounds  and  the  ewes  175  pounds.  This  breed  produces  a  fine 
grade  of  long  wool,  the  wool  averaging  6  to  10  inches  in  length  and  the  fleece 
5  to  10  pounds  in  weight. 


ing  the  litter  is  the  foul  odor  and  the  annoyance  occasioned  the 
sheep  at  the  time  the  litter  is  removed.  There  are  others,  how- 
ever, who  insist  that  the  sheep  barn  should  be  cleaned  out  just 


438  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

previous  to  lambing  time.  The  work  should  be  done  rapidly  so 
as  to  annoy  the  sheep  as  little  as  possible.  After  the  manure 
has  been  removed  it  is  a  good  plan  to  scatter  some  air-slaked 
lime  over  the  floor.  This  serves  as  disinfectant  and  deodorizer. 
Fresh  bedding  may  then  be  put  down,  and  the  barn  will  be 
clean  and  pure  for  the  advent  of  the  lamb  crop. 

The  sheep  lot.  —  If  possible,  the  sheep  should  at  all  times, 
except  in  the  very  severest  of  winter  weather,  have  free  access 
to  a  small  lot.  If  this  is  dry  and  a  part  well  bedded,  the  sheep 
will  spend  much  of  their  time  outside  and  will  be  much  benefited 
thereby.  Above  all  things  the  lot  should  not  be  muddy. 
Where  sheep  are  allowed  to  wallow  in  the  mud,  trouble  from 
foot-scald  is  likely  to  result;  particularly  is  this  true  if  there  is 
much  sheep  manure  mixed  in  the  mud.  Foot-scald  is  usually 
known  as  foot-rot.  This  disease  is  hard  to  eradicate.  The 
sheep  lot  is  very  much  easier  kept  free  from  mud  than  the  fat 
steer  lot,  and  it  will  pay  the  sheep  owner  well  to  take  ample 
precautions. 

A  straw  stack  in  the  sheep  lot  has  many  advantages,  such  as 
keeping  the  sheep  out  of  the  wind,  providing  them  a  clean  place 
to  lie ;  and  they  will  eat  of  the  straw  to  some  extent.  It  has  the 
disadvantage,  however,  that  the  chaff  gets  in  the  wool,  and  for 
this  reason  is  objected  to  by  many  good  sheep  owners.  Yet  ewes 
and  lambs  delight  in  lying  alongside  such  a  stack,  and  they  will 
be  found  there  more  often  than  in  the  barn,  except  in  very  severe 
weather. 


CHAPTER  XX 

DISEASES   OF  SHEEP 

The  common  diseases  of  sheep  are  not  numerous,  but  they 
are  mostly  incurable.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  ravages 
of  internal  parasites.  Prevention  is  better  than  cure.  There 
seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  nearly  every  contagious  and 
infectious  disease  to  which  sheep  are  subject  cannot  be  eradi- 
cated in  two  or  three  years  with  proper  precautions,  yet  these 
diseases  result  in  nine-tenths  of  the  failures  in  this  country.  It 
seems  that  farmers  cannot  realize  that  diseases  so  easy  to  prevent 
will  work  such  destruction  once  they  break  out  in  the  flock.  In 
this  Manual  much  has  been  made  of  the  importance  of  dipping 
all  sheep  immediately  upon  their  arrival  at  the  farm  and  thus 
preventing  an  outbreak  of  any  kind  of  external  parasites ;  also 
of  the  absolute  importance  of  frequent  changes  in  pastures,  es- 
pecially with  the  lambs,  in  order  to  prevent  internal  parasites. 
In  addition,  there  are  the  hygienic  conditions,  such  as  proper 
shelter  and  dry  lots,  that  must  receive  careful  attention. 

TREATING    SICK    SHEEP 

Sick  sheep  should  be  removed  from  the  flock  at  once,  not  only 
that  they  may  receive  extra  care  and  attention,  but  to  prevent  a 
spread  of  the  ailment  in  case  the  disease  should  prove  contagious. 
The  sick  animal  should  be  removed  to  comfortable  quarters  and 
given  the  benefit  of  good  care,  for  in  many  cases  good  care  is 
to  be  preferred  to  medicine.  The  food  should  be  given  careful 
consideration.  The  general  management,  the  food,  and  the 
methods  of  administrating  medicine  should  be  much  the  same 

439 


440  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

as  suggested  on  page  161,  modified  to  meet  the  attendant  con- 
ditions. 

For  convenience  in  discussing  the  common  diseases  of  sheep, 
we  may  divide  them  into  four  classes :  those  due  to  external 
parasites,  as  scab,  foot-rot,  sore  eyes,  sore  teats,  tick,  lice,  and 
the  like ;  second,  those  due  to  internal  parasites,  as  stomach- 
worms,  tape-worms,  and  the  like;  third,  derangement  of  di- 
gestion, due  to  improper  feeding;  and  fourth,  other  diseases, 
as  caked  udder,  garget,  catarrh,  and  the  like. 

EXTERNAL    PARASITES 

The  cure  for  external  parasites  is  dipping.  When  done  as  sug- 
gested in  pages  423  to  427,  it  will  completely  eradicate  such 
parasites  as  ticks  and  lice  as  well  as  the  pests  that  cause  scab, 
foot-rot,  sore  eyes,  and  sore  teats.  The  prevention  of  any  of 
these  parasites  is  a  very  simple  matter. 

INTERNAL    PARASITES 

Treating  internal  parasites  is  much  more  difficult.  In  many 
cases  the  parasites  are  located  where  medicine  cannot  reach 
them,  as  in  the  brain  or  liver;  and  even  when  located  where 
medicine  can  reach  them,  as  in  the  stomach,  the  medicine  is  of 
very  little  value  as  it  is  so  diluted  with  digestive  juices  by  the 
time  it  reaches  the  worms.  The  only  practical  treatment  is 
prevention.  This  involves  some  trouble,  and  in  order  to  make 
the  necessity  for  such  clear,  we  will  consider  a  case  in  detail. 
Of  course,  dipping  is  of  no  avail  for  the  internal  parasites. 

The  stomach-worm.  —  This  worm  (Strongylus  contortus)  is  a 
small,  thread-like  worm  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  length. 
It  lives  in  the  fourth  stomach,  and  especially  afflicts  lambs,  at- 
tacking them  at  any  age  after  they  begin  to  nibble  grass  until 
cold  weather  in  the  fall.  This  stomach-worm  is  by  far  the  most 
destructive  of  parasites,  doing  more  damage  than  all  others 
combined.     When  the  fourth  stomach  of  the  lamb  becomes  filled 


DISEASES   OF  SHEEP 


441 


with  these  small  worms,  digestion  is  greatly  interfered  with,  the 
lamb  looks  dejected,  the  skin  loses  its  pink  color,  the  wool  appears 


Fig.  154.  —  Cotswold  Ram.     Owned  by  F.  W.  Harding,  Waukesha,  Wis. 

The  Cotswold,  a  native  of  England,  is  noted  for  the  production  of  both  mutton 
and  wool.  The  animals  are  rather  large,  rams  averaging  250  pounds  and  the 
ewes  over  200  pounds.  The  breed  is  noted  for  the  production  of  very  long 
wool  of  fine  quality.  The  wool  averages  10  to  14  inches  in  length  and  6  to  10 
pounds  in  weight.     This  breed  is  extremely  popular  in  the  United  States. 


442  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

dead,  and  the  animal  takes  on  a  starved  appearance.  Scour- 
ing is  more  or  less  frequent.  The  best  evidence,  however,  that 
the  lamb  is  afflicted  with  stomach-worms  is  the  presence  of  the 
small  worms  in  the  droppings.  Older  sheep  also  become  affected, 
but  seem  to  withstand  the  ravages  of  the  worms  better  than 
lambs,  due  no  doubt,  in  the  lambs,  to  the  more  tender  condition 
of  the  stomach  wall  and  to  the  milk  diet. 

The  life  history  of  these  small  worms  seems  to  be  simple  and  to 
furnish  a  clew  to  the  means  of  prevention  in  lambs.  The  worms 
become  mature  in  the  body  of  the  older  sheep  and,  laden  with 
eggs  about  to  hatch,  pass  out  with  the  excreta.  Just  what  the 
worms  do  outside  the  sheep's  body  is  not  known.  When  it  is 
moist  and  warm,  in  some  way  the  worms  find  their  way  into  the 
lamb's  stomach.  Perhaps  the  small  worm  is  taken  in  while 
eating,  perhaps  by  drinking  surface  water.  We  know  that 
warmth  and  moisture  are  necessary  for  the  transfer,  hence 
there  is  little  danger  in  the  North,  on  mountain  uplands,  and  but 
little  danger  in  the  dry  regions  of  the  West.  The  method  of 
prevention  is  to  remove  the  lambs  and  place  them  on  fresh  or 
preferably  sown  pastures  before  there  is  danger  of  infection. 
Lambs  receiving  no  other  food  than  grass  and  the  dam's  milk  are 
much  more  likely  to  be  attacked  than  those  fed  grain  in  addition, 
particularly  if  the  grain  contains  linseed-oil  meal.  The  only 
safe  way,  however,  is  to  remove  the  lambs  to  new  pastures  before 
infection. 

In  case  lambs  become  infected,  treatment  should  be  resorted 
to,  though  many  practical  sheep  owners  state  that  the  treatment 
at  best  is  not  satisfactory.  Circular  No.  35,  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  reports 
that  satisfactory  results  were  obtained  from  the  use  of  coal-tar, 
creosote,  thymol,  and  gasolene.  The  following  is  taken  from 
the  circular,  as  it  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  treatment  for  other 
worms  as  well :  — 

Coal-tar  Creosote.  —  Excellent    success   in    treating   sheep, 


DISEASES   OF  SHEEP  443 

goats,  and  cattle  for  the  twisted  wire  worm  (Strongylus  contortus) 
has  been  obtained  with  a  1  per  cent  solution  of  coal-tar  creo- 
sote. The  medicine  is  easily  prepared  and  inexpensive.  It  may 
be  purchased  of  a  druggist  in  small  quantities  of  1  ounce,  or  in 
pound  bottles.  One  ounce  is  sufficient  for  about  20  adult  sheep, 
and  the  cost  of  the  treatment  is  less  than  one-half  a  cent  per  head. 
If  creosote  is  called  for  at  the  drug  store,  beechwood  creosote 
will  be  usually  dispensed.  This  is  more  expensive  than  the  coal- 
tar  creosote  and  not  so  satisfactory  in  expelling  worms. 

A  1  per  cent  solution  of  coal-tar  creosote  is  made  as  follows  :  — 

Coal-tar  creosote      ....       1  ounce 

Water       ......     99  ounces 

99  ounces  =  6  pints  and  3  ounces 

Twisted  wireworms  taken  directly  from  the  stomach  of  sheep 
or  cattle  die  in  one-half  to  one  and  a  half  minutes  when  immersed 
in  this  solution. 

If,  in  drenching,  this  liquid  enters  the  lungs,  the  animal  may 
succumb  in  a  few  minutes.  If  the  dosing  is  performed  carefully, 
as  much  as  6f  ounces  may  be  given  to  a  full-grown  sheep  with- 
out fatal  results.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  animal  shows  ill 
effects,  from  which  it  usually  recovers  within  half  an  hour.  Six 
ounces  were  given  to  a  number  of  sheep  without  the  slightest  ill 
effects.  The  following  table  gives  the  doses  of  the  1  per  cent 
mixture  which  were  used  in  about  400  cases  without  ill  effects  :  — 


Lambs  4  to  12  months  old  . 
Yearling  sheep  and  above  . 
Calves  3  to  8  months  old 

Yearling  steers 

Two-year-old  cattle  and  over 


2  to  4  ounces  (about  60  to  120  c.c.) 

3  to  5  ounces  (about  90  to  150  c.c.) 
5  to  10  ounces  (about  150  to  300  c.c.) 
1  pint  (about  480  c.c.) 

1  quart  (about  960  c.c.) 


Sheep,  goats,  and  calves  which  received  this  treatment  showed 
a  marked  improvement  a  few  days  after  receiving  a  single  dose. 

If  an  overdose  is  given  by  mistake,  and  if  the  sheep  appears 
severely  affected  by  it,  the  animal  should  be  placed  in  the  shade. 
Even  in  some  cases  of  very  severe  overdoses,  where  the  animal  is 


444  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

given  up  for  dead  practically,  it  may  entirely  recover  in  an  hour 
or  so. 

Coal-tar  Creosote  and  Thymol.  —  If,  in  addition  to  the 
stomach-worms,  the  animals  are  suffering  from  a  severe  infection 
of  bowel  worms,  such  as  the  hook  worms,  better  results  are  ob- 
tained in  the  treatment  when  powdered  thymol  is  added  to  the 
creosote.  In  cases  of  this  kind,  the  creosote  solution  is  prepared, 
as  already  directed,  and  30  to  80  or  even  100  grains  of  thymol 
added  to  each  dose  after  it  has  been  measured,  giving  30  grains 
to  lambs,  50  to  yearlings,  and  70  to  100  grains  to  older  sheep, 
according  to  size. 

The  tape-worms.  —  The  digestive  tract  of  sheep  is  occasionally 
infested  with  tape-worms.  There  are  several  kinds  of  tape- 
worms, but  only  two  infesting  sheep  in  this  country.  The 
common  one  (Tcenia  expansa)  varies  in  length  from  ten  to 
twenty  feet  and  in  breadth  from  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch 
at  the  head  to  one-half  an  inch  at  the  tail.  The  life  history 
is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  stomach- worm.  Sheep 
become  infested  in  the  same  way,  the  most  common  source 
being  old  infested  sheep  pastures  and  the  most  susceptible 
animals  being  those  rather  run  down  in  flesh. 

The  best  method  of  combating  tape-worms  is  prevention  by 
changing  from  one  pasture  to  another  and  by  the  use  of  sown 
pastures,  as  suggested  in  the  discussion  on  summer  care  of  the 
flock  (page  382) .  Wing  recommends  liberal  feeding  of  pumpkins 
in  the  fall.  Pumpkin  seeds  are  well-known  vermifuges.  By 
the  frequent  use  of  sown  pastures  and  the  feeding  of  pump- 
kins almost  every  fall  he  reports  entire  freedom  from  this 
disease.  Tape-worms  are  easily  prevented  but  very  difficult 
of  eradication. 

In  case  the  sheep  are  affected  with  tape- worm,  treatment 
should  be  given,  though  the  results  will  depend  in  a  large  meas- 
ure upon  the  degree  of  infection.  From  Bulletin  No.  19  and 
Circular  No.  35,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  we  take  the  fol- 


DISEASES   OF  SHEEP 


445 


lowing :  Dissolve  one  ounce  of  copper  sulfate  in  two  quarts  of 
boiling  water.  Use  only  copper  sulfate  of  a  uniform  blue  color. 
Avoid  that  which  is  in  conglomerate  lumps  with  white  patches 
and  covered  with  a  white  crust.  The  owner  is  cautioned  against 
guessing  at  the  weights  and  measures,  for  this  is  likely  to  result 
in  too  strong  a  solution,  which  will  kill  the  animal,  or  in  too 
weak  a  solution,  which  will  fail  to  be  effective.  Prepare  the 
animals  for  treatment  by  fasting  from  twenty  to  twenty-four 
hours.     The  dose  is  as  follows  :  — 


Age  of  Animals 

Tablespoon- 

FULS 

Cubic 
Centimeter 

Lambs  3  months  old 

Lambs  6  months  old 

Sheep  24  months  old 

1 

2 
3 
4 
41 

"20 
40 
60 
80 
90 

'4i 


The  medicine  is  given  in  the  form  of  a  drench  as  suggested  for 
stomach-worms.  If,  after  dosing,  any  of  the  sheep  seem  to  be 
suffering  from  an  overdose,  indi- 
cated by  lying  apart  from  the 
flock,  not  feeding,  manifesting  a 
painful,  excited  look,  and  a 
spasmodic  movement  in  run- 
ning, walking  with  a  stiff  gait, 
or  purging  with  a  dirty  brown 
discharge,  take  the  affected  ani- 
mal from  the  flock  to  a  shady 
place  and  dose  with  laudanum  and 
milk.  For  a  lamb  four  to  six 
months  old,  give  a  tablespoonful 
of  laudanum  in  a  tumbler  of 
milk.     Repeat  half  the  dose  in  two  or  three  hours  if  necessary. 


Fig.    155.  —  Champion 
Ram.       Photograph 


Cotswald 
from      the 


National  Stockman  and  Farmer. 


446  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

After  treating,  the  sheep  should  not  be  allowed  water  for 
several  hours. 

Each  animal  in  the  flock  should  be  treated  at  the  same  time. 
While  some  sheep  may  be  able  to  withstand  the  presence  of  the 
parasite,  they  serve  as  a  source  of  infection.  While  the  tape- 
worms are  being  voided,  the  flock  should  be  confined  to  one  place, 
and  the  droppings  with  the  segments  of  worms  destroyed. 

DIGESTIVE    DISORDERS 

Among  sheep,  digestive  disorders  arising  from  overfeeding, 
from  irregular  feeding,  and  the  feeding  of  food  too  dry  and  woody, 
are  of  rather  common  occurrence.  First  of  all,  however,  we  will 
consider  bloating,  as  it  may  be  of  frequent  occurrence,  unless 
extra  care  is  taken,  when  turning  to  clover,  alfalfa,  and  rape 
pasture. 

Bloating.  —  When  bloat  occurs  among  sheep,  treatment  to  be 
of  any  avail  must  be  prompt,  as  the  gas  generated  often  causes 
death  from  suffocation  in  a  very  few  minutes.  If  the  animal  is 
in  much  distress  when  found,  the  paunch  should  be  punctured 
where  the  distension  is  greatest,  in  order  that  the  gas  may  escape. 
For  this  a  trocar  and  canula  is  best,  but  in  the  absence  a  long- 
bladed  pen  knife  will  serve.  After  relief  has  been  had,  disin- 
fect the  wound.  If  there  was  not  sufficient  time  to  remove  the 
wool  from  the  spot  before  the  puncture,  it  should  be  removed 
now  and  a  little  pine  tar  applied  to  repel  the  flies.  (See  page 
351.) 

If  the  bloating  is  not  so  severe,  relief  may  be  obtained  by  tying 
a  stick  or  corn  cob  in  the  mouth  similar  to  a  bit,  thus  holding  the 
mouth  open,  and  the  sheep,  in  rubbing  the  cob  or  stick  with  the 
tongue,  often  struggles  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  further  bloat- 
ing. If  the  sheep  are  noticed  when  first  distressed,  give  them 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  raw  linseed  oil  to  which  has  been  added  a 
teaspoonful  of  turpentine.     Slowly  pouring  cold  water  over  the 


DISEASES   OF  SHEEP  447 

distended  paunch  often  gives  relief  by  stopping  the  accumulation 
of  gas. 

Constipation.  —  In  winter  when  the  ration  is  composed  largely 
of  dry  woody  food,  sheep  often  suffer  from  impaction,  which 
often  leads  to  constipation  and  in  some  instances  to  inflamma- 
tion of  the  bowels.  This  condition  of  the  digestive  tract  ma- 
terially weakens  the  animal,  and  it  becomes  susceptible  to 
various  ailments.  All  tendencies  to  impaction,  constipation, 
inflammation,  and  the  like  should  be  avoided  by  feeding  daily 
some  laxative  food,  such  as  roots,  silage,  oil  meal  "pea  size," 
along  with  the  dry  food.  If  sheep  growing  is  to  prove  profit- 
able, some  such  foods  must  be  used. 

When  impaction  occurs,  it  may  be  relieved  by  giving  Epsom 
salts.  The  size  of  the  dose  should  vary  somewhat  according  to 
the  size  of  the  animal ;  a  150-pound  animal  may  be  given  from  4 
to  6  ounces  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  hot  water.  If  not  relieved 
within  10  hours,  repeat  the  dose. 

Disorders  caused  by  overfeeding.  —  As  indicated  in  the  discus- 
sion on  feeding  lambs  in  winter  (page  399) ,  digestive  disorders  due 
to  overfeeding  are  likely  to  prove  fatal.  Occasionally  fatalities 
will  occur  from  this  cause  on  the  best  regulated  farms.  Many 
remedies  have  been  suggested  to  relieve  such  disorders,  but  they 
fail.  Death  is  almost  sure  to  follow,  no  matter  what  may  be 
done.  In  fact,  among  sheep  suffering  from  apoplexy,  the  result 
of  overfeeding,  little  time  will  be  given  to  do  anything.  The 
lambs  die  in  a  few  minutes.  This  sometimes  can  be  impressed 
only  by  experience.  The  lambs  will  seemingly  be  in  the  best  of 
condition,  when,  for  some  reason,  one  gets  an  overfeed,  and  fatal 
results  rapidly  follow.  It  is  usually  the  largest  and  strongest 
lambs  that  are  attacked,  as  they  are  the  ones  likely  to  crowd  the 
smaller  ones  away  and  consume  too  much  feed.  The  ration, 
particularly  the  grain,  should  be  increased  very  slowly.  While 
it  is  very  important  that  the  sheep  be  fed  all  they  will  consume,  it 
is  even  more  important  that  they  be  not  fed  more  than  they  will 


448  MANUAL   OF  FABM  ANIMALS 

clean  up  from  meal  to  meal,  as  this  is  likely  to  result  in  one  or 
more  of  them  overeating. 

While  water,  salt,  and  succulent  food  of  some  kind  are  neces- 
sary to  the  well  being  of  sheep,  care  must  be  exercised  in  feeding 
them,  as  otherwise  they  are  likely  to  produce  kidney  and  bladder 
troubles.  Drinking  too  much  hard  water,  the  result  of  eating 
large  quantities  of  salt,  causes  the  deposit  of  limy  substance  in 
the  bladder,  which  becomes  washed  into  the  urethra,  where 
it  lodges,  causing  stoppage  of  the  urine,  inflammation,  followed 
by  distention  of  the  bladder,  which  after  a  time  results  in  death. 
The  long-continued  feeding  of  too  many  mangels,  rich  in  lime, 
is  likely  to  give  similar  results. 

OTHER    DISEASES 

Caked  udder.  —  This  trouble  often  occurs  among  heavy  milk- 
ers. In  most  cases  it  is  due  to  neglect  at  lambing  time.  The 
udder  becomes  greatly  distended,  inflamed,  and  swollen.  The 
treatment  is  to  relieve  the  congestion  by  drawing  the  milk,  fre- 
quently. Bathe  the  parts  with  hot  water  and  apply  camphor 
ointment,  as  in  caked  udder  among  dairy  cattle.  Some 
prefer  an  ointment  made  of  lard  and  turpentine,  equal  parts. 
The  ointment  should  be  well  rubbed  in  and  applied  three 
times  daily. 

Garget  often  proves  serious  in  certain  localities.  It  is  said 
to  be  due  to  mechanical  injuries,  such  as  a  blow,  a  scratch,  or  the 
udder  being  horned ;  to  the  udder  becoming  distended  with  milk; 
and  to  germs  entering  the  udder.  The  udder  becomes  hard, 
distended,  and  the  milk  is  often  watery  and  may  contain 
blood.  The  treatment  usually  recommended  is  the  hot  water 
bathing  and  the  camphor-belladonna  ointment  treatment,  as 
suggested  for  cows  (page  340). 

Among  sheep,  however,  garget  seems  to  be  due  to  other  causes 
as  well,  and  when  such  is  the  case,  the  above  treatment  often  fails 
of  relief.     A  typical  case  is  somewhat  as  follows  :  A  strong  ewe 


DISEASES   OF  SHEEP 


449 


lambs  without  difficulty,  the  first  milk  comes,  and  the  lamb  as 
well  as  the  ewe  is  doing  nicely.  The  owner,  in  order  that  the 
ewe  may  give  an  abundance  of  milk,  places  the  ewe  on  a  full 


w 
J 


\t 


Fig.  15G.  —  Lincoln  Ram  Champion  at   International  Live  Stock  Show, 
1906.     Photograph  from  National  Stockman  and  Farmer. 

The  native  home  of  the  Lincoln  breed  of  sheep  is  in  the  county  of  Lincoln,  in 
England.  This  breed  is  particularly  noted  for  its  large  size  and  great  length 
of  fleece.  In  weight  the  rams  average  about  300  pounds  and  the  ewes 
275  pounds.  The  wool  often  attains  a  length  of  18  to  20  inches,  and  at 
shearing  time  gives  a  fleece  weighing  10  to  12  pounds,  for  the  ewes,  and  12  to 
20  pounds,  for  the  rams. 


grain  feed  at  once,  perhaps  feeding  corn  alone,  as  the  grain;  in  a 
few  days  milk  secretion  stops,  the  sheep  has  fever,  the  flesh  of  the 
udder  is  red,  and  on  pressure  is  dented  with  the  hand.  The  sheep 
seems  in  great  distress  and  may  soon  die.  If  she  lives,  the  udder 
2g 


450  MANUAL    OF  FARM  AXIMALS 

never  regains  its  consistency  and  after  a  time  sloughs  off,  leaving 
a  slow  healing  sore.  In  such  cases,  physicking  the  animal  and 
treating  the  udder  are  of  no  avail.  There  seems  to  be  a  relation 
between  the  disease  and  the  food  supply.  The  grain  part  of  the 
ration  seems  to  have  been  increased  too  rapidly  immediately 
after  lambing.  When  the  grain  ration  was  increased  more 
slowly  and  when  it  contained  oats  and  linseed  meal,  no  such  diffi- 
culty was  experienced.  From  this  it  would  seem  that  the  treat- 
ment should  be  prevention  by  increasing  the  grain  ration  slowly 
after  lambing. 


PART  FOUR  — SWINE 


CHAPTER  XXI 

CHOOSING   AND    JUDGING   SWINE 

Swine  are  grown  for  a  single  purpose,  that  of  pork  pro- 
duction ;  yet  the  successful  swine  breeder  will  give  the  selection 
of  his  animals  much  serious  consideration.  In  choosing  swine, 
as  in  all  classes  of  meat  animals,  the  butcher's  preference  must 
be  the  leading  guide.  The  butcher's  preference  is  determined 
by  the  demands  of  the  market.  Uniformity  in  size  and  quality 
is  the  most  urgent  demand. 

TYPES    OF    SWINE 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  swine:  the  lard  type,  noted 
for  the  production  of  thick  fat;  and  the  bacon  type,  known 
for  the  production  of  bacon. 

The  lard  type  far  outnumbers  the  bacon  type  in  America.  As 
a  type,  the  lard-hog  has  reached  its  highest  development  in  the 
corn-belt  of  the  United  States.  This  is  often  called  the  American 
type  of  hog,  and  is  not  looked  upon  with  favor  by  people  of  other 
countries  because  of  its  extreme  fat  development. 

The  lard-hog  should  be  compact,  with  the  body  very  wide 
and  deep.  The  shoulders  should  be  full  although  not  coarse, 
with  the  hind-quarters  or  hams  carried  out  straight  to  the  tail- 
head  and  well  fleshed  down  to  the  hock.  Since  the  valuable  cuts 
lie  along  the  back,  rump  and  quarters,  the  general  conformation 
of  the  lard-hog  should  be  similar  to  that  of  the  fat  steer.  The 
flesh  covering  should  be  thick  and  evenly  distributed  throughout 
the  body,  particularly  over  the  shoulders  and  quarters.     The  size 

453 


454  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  weight  are  determined  largely  by  the  market  conditions. 
Formerly  very  heavy  hogs  were  in  demand,  but  at  the  present 
time  pigs  weighing  from  225  to  250  pounds  will  command  the 
highest  price,  all  other  conditions  being  equal. 

The  true  bacon  type  of  hog  is  little  grown  in  the  United  States. 
Denmark,  Great  Britain,  and  Canada  furnish  most  of  this  class 
of  pork.  In  recent  years  the  American  breeders,  particularly 
those  east  of  the  corn-belt,  have  given  this  class  of  swine  some 
active  consideration,  but  its  production  is  not  likely  to  make 
much  headway  in  America.  We  prefer  the  rapid-fattening, 
heavily  fleshed,  and  early-maturing  lard  type.  In  contrasting 
the  general  appearance  of  the  bacon  type  with  the  lard  type,  we 
note  that  the  body  of  the  former  lacks  the  width  of  the  latter, 
the  shoulders  and  hams  are  lighter  and  longer,  the  body  is  some- 
what longer,  and  the  animal  stands  on  somewhat  longer  legs. 
The  weight  of  the  bacon  hog  is  not  so  great  as  of  the  lard  type, 
American  markets  preferring  155  to  195  pounds  and  the  Danish 
markets  160  to  220  pounds. 

Because  of  the  extreme  difference  in  type  we  will  consider 
the  desirable  features  of  the  lard-  or  fat-hog  first  and  then  con- 
trast with  it  the  bacon  type,  first  pausing  to  discuss  the  age. 

AGE    OF   SWINE 

In  choosing  other  classes  of  farm  animals  age  enters  largely 
into  the  choice,  but  in  market  hogs  it  is  seldom  considered  except 
in  the  case  of  old  sows  and  stags.  The  weight  and  condition  of 
the  animal  determine  the  value.  As  in  other  farm  animals,  the 
age  is  indicated  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  teeth,  but  the  difficulty 
of  catching,  holding,  and  examining  is  so  great  that  the  teeth  are 
seldom,  if  ever,  used  to  determine  the  age  of  swine.  Among 
breeding  stock  the  matter  of  age  is  of  considerable  importance, 
but  even  here  it  is  estimated  more  by  a  general  examination  than 
by  any  specific  character.  The  older  the  boar  the  coarser  and 
heavier  the  " shields"  —  outside  of  shoulder  —  and  the  longer 


CHOOSING   AND   JUDGING   SWINE 


455 


or  larger  the  tusks  as  well  as  the  larger  and  more  wrinkled  the 
body  throughout.  The  older  the  sow  the  more  pendulent  the 
belly,  the  coarser  and  more  wrinkled  she  becomes. 


CHOOSING    LARD-HOGS 


The  lard-  or  fat-hog  is  desired  for  full  shoulders  and  heavy 
hams.     These  points   must   be  kept    clearly  in   mind.      The 


Fig.    157.  —  Poland  China  Yearling  Boar. 

Fair,  1908. 


First  prize,  Wisconsin  State 


The  Poland  China  breed  of  swine  originated  in  Warren  and  Butler  counties  in 
southwestern  Ohio.  The  breed  is  noted  particularly  for  its  early  maturing 
qualities  and  for  the  ability  to  take  on  fat  economically.  This  breed  repre- 
sents the  extreme  development  in  lard  production,  and  because  of  this  it  lacks 
in  fecundity  and  prolificacy.  In  size  the  breed  is  classed  as  a  middle-weight. 
The  color  is  black  with  white  markings,  the  ears  drooping,  and  face  straight. 
The  breed  is  very  popular  in  America. 


sides  and  especially  the  belly  produce  a  cheap  grade  of  meat, 
and  there  should  be  a  minimum  of  these  parts  with  maxi- 
mum loin,  rump,  and  quarters.  In  choosing  lard-hogs,  or  any 
other  for  that  matter,  the  most  convenient  and  simplest  method 


456  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

is  to  note  the  general  appearance  first,  then  pass  to  a  more 
detailed  examination. 

General  appearance  of  lard-hogs 

By  carefully  noting  the  general  appearance  of  a  hog  one  can 
gain  a  fair  knowledge  of  its  value.  Carefully  view  the  hog  or 
the  drove  of  hogs  from  a  distance  before  moving  up  closely  to 
the  animals.  This  gives  one  a  good  knowledge  of  their  uniform- 
ity, temperament,  and  their  general  form.  The  butcher  will 
base  his  estimate  of  their  value  largely  on  the  uniformity  and 
form,  and  the  feeder  will  base  his  estimate  mostly  on  their  tem- 
perament, as  a  mild-tempered  pig  is  likely  to  be  a  good  feeder. 
Such  an  examination  will  give  one  a  good  idea  of  the  weight, 
quality,  and  constitution,  all  very  important  factors  in  swine 
growing. 

The  general  form  of  the  fat-hog  is  of  primary  importance. 
It  should  be  compact,  with  the  body  deep,  broad,  smooth,  and 
symmetrical.  The  length  should  be  medium,  as  a  too  long 
back  is  likely  to  result  in  weakness  just  back  of  the  shoulders. 
As  with  the  steer,  the  hog  should  have  the  larger  part  of  its 
weight  in  the  region  of  the  most  valuable  cuts;  that  is,  along 
the  back,  loin,  and  hams.  While  the  fore-quarters,  neck,  and 
head  are  parts  of  lesser  value,  they  must  show  much  develop- 
ment in  order  to  insure  constitutional  vigor  and  vitality,  which 
is  largely  controlled  by  chest  capacity.  The  chest,  therefore, 
should  be  broad,  deep,  and  carried  well  forward.  This  develop- 
ment gives  the  hog  a  parallelogram  development  similar  to  that 
desired  for  beef  cattle. 

The  weight  and  condition.  —  The  weight  will  depend  largely 
on  the  condition,  and  as  these  determine  the  market  value 
they  will  be  considered  together.  Formerly  heavy  hogs,  those 
weighing  from  400  to  500  pounds,  commanded  the  highest  price, 
but  at  the  present  time  the  market  demands  a  much  lighter 
hog.     While    market    demands    are    exceedingly    variable,    in 


CHOOSING  AND   JUDGING    SWINE 


457 


general  the  most  desirable  weight  is  from  180  to  275  pounds, 
though  heavier  hogs  sometimes  command  a  premium  on  the 
market.  Very  heavy  hogs  are  often  spoken  of  as  "fat  backs" 
because  of  their  broad,  heavily  fleshed  backs.  A  lard  pig  in 
good  condition  should  weigh  from  175  to  200  pounds  when  six 
months  old,  and  350  to  400  pounds  when  one  year  old.  Some 
hogs  under  the  best  of  conditions  may  weigh  much  more,  many 
others  will  weigh  much  less,  but  those  are  the  weights  one  can 
reasonably  hope  to  attain. 

Quality.  —  The  indications  of  quality  are  fine  hair,  freedom 
from  bristles,  and  a  comparatively  light,  dense,  and  clean  bone. 
Fineness  of  the  parts  in  general  is  an  evidence  of  quality.  This 
is  often  overdrawn,  as  too 
much  fineness  leads  to  delicacy, 
which  is  sometimes  observed  in 
the  hogs  being  too  small,  facial 
features  too  fine  or  small,  and 
the  bone  fine  to  the  point  of 
weakness.  On  the  other  hand, 
hogs  with  coarse  bone,  coarse 
hair,  and  coarse  hide  are  likely 
to  be  poor  feeders,  and  the  butcher  objects  to  them  because 
of  the  large  percentage  of  offal  which  they  dress.  The  qual- 
ity of  bone,  hide,  and  hair  should  lie  between  these  two 
extremes.  In  addition  to  being  rather  fine  and  free  from 
bristles,  the  hair  should  lie  close  to  the  body  and  the  skin  be 
free  from  wrinkles  and  undue  roughness  caused  by  scurf. 

Constitution. — The  indications,  of  a  good  constitution  and 
much  vigor  are  a  deep,  broad,  and  well-advanced  chest,  thus 
giving  capacious  chest  capacity  and  good  heart  girth.  The 
chest  should  be  deep  from  the  top  of  the  shoulder  to  the  brisket, 
which  should  be  placed  low  down;  it  should  be  wide,  as  indi- 
cated by  much  width  between  the  front  legs,  and  the  brisket 
should  be  well  advanced  between  the  front  legs.     The  real 


Fu 


15s. 


—  Poland    China    Boar. 
Sold  for  S5000. 


458  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

width  of  the  chest  is  often  difficult  to  estimate,  as  the  external 
width  depends  much  on  the  thickness  and  the  way  the  shoulders 
are  attached;  thus  an  animal  wide  from  shoulder  to  shoulder 
might  have  a  small  chest  capacity,  which  would  not  leave  suffi- 
cient room  for  the  organs  to  do  their  work  as  they  should. 
The  flank,  both  front  and  rear,  should  be  full  and  well  let  down, 
as  this  also  indicates  good  constitution. 

Uniformity.  —  One  of  the  most  important  general  considera- 
tions in  choosing  a  herd  of  swine,  either  for  breeding  or  feeding, 
is  the  uniformity.  While  this  adds  nothing  to  their  ability  to 
make  economic  gains,  it  does  add  materially  to  their  selling  value. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  neglected  factors  in  American  pork  pro- 
duction. The  first  thing  the  commission  merchant  does  on  re- 
ceiving a  mixed  drove  of  hogs  is  to  separate  them  into  bunches 
uniform  in  all  important  characters,  as  age,  weight,  and  con- 
dition. The  butcher  will  very  often  pass  by  a  mixed  drove  of 
hogs,  even  though  they  are  of  good  quality  and  in  good  flesh, 
refusing  to  place  a  bid  on  them  merely  because  he  lacks  the 
facilities  for  handling  such  mixed  lots.  Separate  them  into  uni- 
form droves,  and  he  is  attracted  to  them  at  once  and  will  pay  an 
extra  premium  for  the  same  stuff  he  refused  to  bid  on 
before. 

Uniformity  in  color  is  perhaps  not  so  essential  as  age,  weight, 
and  quality,  although  a  drove  alike  in  color  will  command  a 
better  price  than  mixed  droves.  White  is  not  considered  well 
adapted  to  southern  conditions,  as  it  is  likely  to  sun-scald  or 
blister,  and  this  introduces  skin  diseases  of  various  forms.  For- 
merly, by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  hogs  sent  to  the  market 
were  black,  but  recently  blacks  have  been  decreasing  and  reds 
increasing,  with  the  whites  remaining  practically  stationary. 
From  information  gathered  from  the  ten  largest  packing  houses 
in  the  United  States,  the  color  ran  as  follows :  black,  55  per 
cent;  red,  35  per  cent;  white,  10  per  cent;  all  others,  5 
per  cent. 


CHOOSING  AND   JUDGING   SWINE  459 

Detail  characters  of  the  lard-hog 

Since  the  individuals  are  small  and  the  drove  often  composed 
of  a  large  number,  the  beginner  is  likely  to  neglect  the  detail 
examination,  with  the  result  that  many  poor  individuals  find 
their  way  into  the  beginner's  herd.  Individuality  among  swine 
is  just  as  great  as  among  fat  cattle.  The  breeder  or  feeder  in 
choosing  his  swine  should  carefully  observe  each  character,  and 
in  order  that  none  go  unnoticed  they  may  be  considered  in  the 
following  order :  — 

The  head  should  be  short  and  broad.  No  facial  character 
among  any  class  of  farm  animals  is  more  variable  than  the  hog's 
snout.  In  some  breeds,  notably  the  Tamworths  and  Hamp- 
shires,  the  snout  is  very  long  and  straight  from  the  ears  to  the 
tip  of  the  nose ;  in  other  breeds,  as  the  Yorkshires,  it  is  long  and 
dished ;  while  in  others  it  is  short  and  straight,  as  in  the  Poland 
China ;  and  in  still  others  it  is  short  and  very  much  dished,  as 
in  the  Berkshires.  The  eyes  should  be  wide  apart,  clear,  and 
prominent.  Folds  of  fat  about  the  eyes,  while  rather  common, 
are  very  objectionable.  In  heavy  fat-hogs  these  patches  of 
fat  are  often  so  prominent  as  entirely  to  close  the  eye.  The 
ears  should  be  of  medium  size  for  the  breed  and  fine  in  texture. 
The  way  the  ear  is  carried  depends  on  the  breed,  being  erect 
in  the  Berkshire  and  Yorkshire  ;  half  drooping  in  others,  as  the 
Poland  China  and  Duroc  Jerseys;  and  wholly  pendent  in  still 
others,  as  the  Chester  White  breed.  Whatever  the  carriage, 
ears  should  be  neatly  attached  to  the  head.  Large  and  coarse 
ears  are  usually  associated  with  heavy  coarse  bone  and  are, 
therefore,  objectionable  on  any  breed. 

The  jowls  should  be  firm,  smooth,  of  medium  size,  and  not 
pendulous.  Jowls  that  are  flabby,  owing  to  the  excessive  amount 
of  fat,  are  very  objectionable.  They  should  be  firm,  indicating 
an  intermixture  of  lean  meat.  The  size  of  the  jowls  is  rather 
a  breed  characteristic,  being  rather  large  in  the  Poland  China 


460 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


and  Berkshire,  and  rather  small  in  the  Tamworths  and  Hamp- 
shires.  The  statement  is  often  made  that  large  jowls  indicate 
great  feeding  capacity.  This  is  not  true,  as  Tamworths  and 
Hampshires  feed  as  well  as  Poland  Chinas  or  Berkshires.  The 
medium-sized  jowls  for  the  breed  are  to  be  preferred.  They 
should  be  free  from  heavy  folds  and  not  pendulous  and  loose. 


Fig.  159.  —  Prize  Berkshire  Sow.     Owned  at  Hood  Farm,  Lowell,  Mass. 

The  native  home  of  the  Berkshire  breed  of  swine  is  in  England.  Like  Poland 
China,  this  breed  is  noted  for  its  early  maturity  and  for  its  ability  quickly  to 
attain  marketable  condition.  This  breed  lacks  the  extreme  fat  development 
of  the  Poland  China,  and  for  this  reason  the  quality  of  the  meat  excels  the 
Poland  China.  In  prolificacy  and  fecundity  the  breed  ranks  fair.  In  weight 
the  animals  are  classed  with  the  middle-weight  breeds.  The  color  is  black, 
with  white  markings,  ears  erect,  and  the  face  dished.  The  breed  is  very  popu- 
lar in  America. 


The  neck  should  be  of  medium  length  and  possess  sufficient 
width  and  depth  to  swell  smoothly  into  the  shoulder-vein  and 
pass  back  without  any  noticeable  depression.  It  should  narrow 
toward  the  nape  and  join  smoothly  with  the  cheeks.  It  should 
join  the  head  and  shoulders  smoothly  without  undue  thickness, 
as  a  neck  too  thick  and  too  heavy  is  objectionable  because  it 


CHOOSING  AND  JUDGING   SWINE  461 

indicates  general  coarseness  and  increases  the  relative  percent- 
age of  cheap  meat. 

The  shoulders  should  be  long,  full,  and  level  on  top.  They 
should  be  long,  extending  down  even  with  the  underline  of  the 
body.  While  long  shoulders  are  not  necessarily  correlated  with 
a  deep  chest  or  constitutional  vigor,  they  give  the  hog  a  more 
symmetrical  appearance.  They  should  be  full,  especially  at 
the  lower  end,  which  is  often  a  weak  point,  and  just  forward  of 
the  shoulders  in  the  region  known  as  the  shoulder-vein.  The 
shoulders  should  not  be  too  heavy,  as  it  is  a  comparatively 
cheap  cut,  nor  should  the  skin  be  too  thick  and  heavy,  as  such 
indicates  reversion  to  ancestral  types,  because  these  parts  were 
abnormally  developed  in  the  wild  hog  as  a  protection  in  fighting. 

The  back  and  loin  should  be  of  moderate  length,  straight, 
broad,  and  evenly  fleshed  throughout.  They  should  be  very 
carefully  considered,  as  the  back  and  loin  furnish  some  of  the 
most  valuable  cuts.  Here  pork  chop  and  pork  roasts  are  se- 
cured. The  back  should  be  strorfg,  and  this  can  best  be  ob- 
tained by  moderate  length,  as  a  too  long  back  is  likely  to  be 
weak,  particularly  just  back  of  the  shoulders.  It  should  be 
straight  or,  better  still,  slight^  arched,  gradually  rising  from 
the  neck  to  the  center  of  the  back,  and  from  there  sloping  very 
gradually  to  the  tail.  There  certainly  should  be  no  depression 
or  sway  in  the  back  from  the  shoulder  to  the  tail.  The  back 
should  be  broad,  and  this  breadth  should  be  evenly  maintained 
from  the  shoulder  to  the  tail.  It  should  be  as  broad  on  the 
rear  as  it  is  in  front.  Tapering  towards  the  rear  —  that  is, 
narrower  across  the  loin  and  rump  than  across  the  shoulders  — 
is  objectionable.  The  flesh  covering  should  be  even  and  firm, 
giving  a  smooth  carcass  when  slaughtered. 

The  sides  should  be  as  long  as  possible  and  yet  maintain  suf- 
ficient strength  of  back,  which  is  best  accomplished  by  medium 
length.  They  should  be  deep  and  thick.  The  ribs  should  be 
well    arched    and    continue    low  down,   giving    great  feeding 


462  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

capacity.  The  underline  should  run  straight  from  front  flank 
to  rear  flank,  giving  the  side  an  even  width  throughout  its 
entire  length.  Sides  should  be  firm  and  smooth,  and  free  from 
wrinkles  and  flabbiness.  Wrinkles  and  creases,  particularly 
just  back  of  the  shoulders,  are  of  common  occurrence  and  are 
usually  objectionable,  as  they  indicate  uneven  fattening  and 
poor  quality  of  flesh.  While  the  development  of  the  shoulders 
and  hams  is  usually  much  greater  than  the  sides,  thus  leaving 
a  marked  depression  just  back  of  the  shoulder  and  in  front  of 
the  hams,  this  should  not  be;  the  sides  should  be  even  with  the 
hams  and  shoulders  and  carry,  the  fullness  well  down,  giving 
the  animal  a  symmetrical  and  well-balanced  appearance. 

The  belly  should  be  low,  giving  the  side  good  depth  and  in- 
dicating great  feeding  capacity ;  it  should  be  straight  from  fore 
to  rear,  giving  an  even  cut  to  the  sides,  and  it  should  be  firm 
and  smooth,  as  wrinkles  indicate  lack  of  lean  and  general  flab- 
biness. The  width  of  the  belly  should  be  in  proportion  to  the 
hog  in  general.     A  very  narrow  belly  is  objectionable. 

The  hips  should  be  as  wide  as  the  body  in  general  and  smoothly 
covered  with  flesh.  Narrow  hips  are  very  objectionable,  as  this 
is  the  region  of  valuable  meat.  The  hips  should  be  so  smoothly 
covered  that  their  location  is  not  apparent  to  the  eye.  It  is 
commonly  held  that  the  hips  should  be  rather  low,  as  a  very 
high  hip  is  not  likely  to  be  well  covered. 

The  ramp  should  be  long,  wide,  and  fairly  level.  It  should 
be  long  so  as  to  increase  the  length  of  the  ham.  The  width 
should  be  carried  back  proportionately  with  the  back,  as  a 
peaked  rump  is  very  objectionable.  Narrow,  peaked  rumps 
mean  thin  hams,  which  do  not  sell  well  on  the  market.  As 
a  rule  hogs  droop  considerably  from  the  hips  to  the  tail ;  never- 
theless the  nearer  the  rump  approaches  the  level,  the  better 
the  cuts  of  meat  will  be;  for  this  reason  extremely  drooping 
rumps  are  to  be  avoided.  The  rump  should  be  evenly  and 
smoothly  fleshed  from  hips  to  tail. 


CHOOSING  AND  JUDGING   SWINE  463 

The  hams  should  be  wide,  deep,  and  plump.  Viewing  the  pig 
from  behind,  the  hams  should  be  wide  from  between  the  legs 
to  the  outside ;  viewing  from 
the  side,  they  should  be  deep, 
that  is,  long  from  the  tail  down- 
ward and  fleshed  well  down  to 
the  hock.  Such  a  conformation 
will  give  a  long,  wide,  and 
plump  ham  when  slaughtered. 
Often    the    hams    lack    fleshing 

above  the  hocks,  the  region   be-  FlG-  160.  —  Champion  Berkshire  Pig. 

ing  bare  and  thin,  which  results 

in  a  poor  ham  when  slaughtered.     The  flesh  should  be  firm, 

indicating  that  there  is  not  too  much  fat,  as  very  fat  hams 

are  not  desired  on  the  market.     Extra  fat  hams  sell  at  low 

prices. 

The  legs  should  be  straight,  strong,  tapering,  and  well  placed. 
Knees  that  are  considerably  bent,  or  "bucked  knees,"  and 
hocks  that  are  very  much  cramped,  are  common  defects  among 
swine.  Crooked  knees,  those  which  come  too  close  together, 
and  hocks  too  close,  are  all  too  common.  Another  very  serious 
objection,  particularly  among  fat-hogs,  is  the  tendency,  of  their 
pasterns  to  break  down,  leaving  the  animal  to  walk  on  the  dew- 
claws.  Although  common,  and  often  among  the  very  best  bred 
hogs,  this  is  very  serious  and  always  to  be  guarded  against. 
Sometimes  the  underline  slants  upward  from  the  front  to  the 
hind  flank,  due  to  the  hind  legs  being  longer  than  the  fore  legs. 
This  should  not  be. 

The  legs  should  be  short,  strong,  and  placed  wide  apart,  and 
when  the  hog  walks,  the  hind  and  fore  legs  should  pass  forward 
in  a  straight  line.  Although  inward  and  outward  movements 
of  the  legs  are  common,  they  are  objectionable  and  account  for 
the  awkward  gait  of  many  hogs.  This  is  a  common  defect 
among  well-bred  swine. 


464  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

CHOOSING   BACON-HOGS 

The  bacon-hog  differs  materially  from  the  fat-  or  lard-hog, 
particularly  in  type  and  flesh  covering.  The  bacon  type 
originated  to  meet  the  demand  for  lean  meat.  Excessive  fat- 
ness is  objectionable  in  this  type  and  does  not  bring  as  high 
price  as  when  the  lean  and  fat  are  well  interspersed,  giving  the 
meat  a  marbled  appearance.  The  bacon-hog  is  extensively 
grown  in  the  Old  World  and  Canada,  but  has  never  become 
popular  in  the  United  States,  although  considerable  bacon  is 
produced  in  the  Eastern  States. 

In  general  appearance,  the  bacon  type  differs  from  the  lard 
type  in  the  animals  being  more  upstanding,  much  longer  of 
limb,  the  bodies  considerably  longer  and  not  so  wide,  and  the 
hams  and  shoulders  much  lighter.  The  animals  lack  the  heavy 
flesh  covering  of  the  lard  type. 

Condition.  —  The -flesh  is  not  so  thick  as  on  the  lard  type  of 
hog,  rarely  exceeding  one  and  one-half  inches,  but  it  must  be 
firm,  smooth,  and  even  over  all  parts.  It  should  be  firm,  as 
this  indicates  the  presence  of  lean  meat;  it  should  be  smooth 
and  free  from  wrinkles  and  seams,  as  smoothness  indicates  even 
fleshing  and  good  quality;  and  the  flesh  covering  should  be 
even  over  all  parts  of  the  body  in  order  that  the  cuts  of  bacon 
may  be  uniform. 

The  form  should  be  long,  level,  and  deep.  It  should  be  long 
in  order  to  give  length  to  the  side  cuts ;  it  should  be  level  and 
free  from  sway  back ;  and  it  should  be  deep  in  order  to  increase 
the  percentage  of  side  meat.  The  shoulders  and  hams  should 
be  light  and  the  animal  of  uniform  width  from  the  shoulders 
to  the  hams.  Width  is  not  sought,  but  both  length  and 
depth  are  of  prime  importance.  The  form  should  appear 
trim  and  neat,  and  the  animal  be  free  from  all  coarseness  in 
hair,  hide,  and  bone. 

The  shoulders  should  be  smoothly  laid-in  before,  behind,  and 


CHOOSING  AND  JUDGING   SWINE  465 

on  top;  compact,  indicating  quality  and  firmness;  and  they 
should  be  light,  lacking  the  bulge  of  the  lard-hog.  The  shoul- 
der should  fit  closely  to  the  body  and  not  show  more  width  on  the 
back;  it  should  be  free  from  coarseness ;  and  the  fleshing  should 


Fig.    161.  —  Large  Yorkshire,  or    Large  White,  Sow.      Photograph  from 

Farmers7  Advocate. 

The  Large  Yorkshire  or  Large  White  breed  of  swine  developed  in  England. 
This  breed  is  noted  particularly  for  its  bacon  qualities.  The  quality  of  the 
meat  is  unexcelled,  being  well  marbled  ;  that  is,  the  fat  and  lean  are  well  mixed, 
although  the  animals  are  rather  late  maturing.  In  size  the  breed  is  classed  as 
large.  The  breeding  qualities  are  excellent.  The  color  is  white,  the  ears  in- 
clined to  droop  forward,  and  the  face  dished. 

extend  well  down  the  legs,  indicating  muscular  development 
and  giving  a  long  shoulder  cut. 

Sides.  —  Among  bacon-hogs  the  sides  are  of  prime  impor- 
tance, as  the  choicest  bacon  comes  from  this  region.  It  is, 
therefore,  essential  to  have  as  much  as  possible  of  the  desired 
weight  in  this  region.  The  sides  should  be  long,  smooth,  and 
level.  From  shoulder  to  ham  should  be  as  long  as  possible 
without  increasing  weakness,  thus  giving  long  side  cuts ;  they 
2h 


466  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

should  be  smooth  and  free  from  wrinkles  and  seams;  and  they 
should  be  level  from  shoulders  to  hips.  A  swaying  back  or  a 
too  pendulous  belly  are  very  objectionable. 

Hams.  —  The  rump  should  be  long,  and  the  fleshing  should 
be  carried  well  downward  toward  the  hock.  Fullness  and 
plumpness  are  not  essential,  while  good  length,  with  smooth 
muscular  development,  is  of  prime  importance.  The  fleshing 
should  be  firm  and  tapering  towards  the  hock,  thus  giving  a 
neat  and  trim  "gammon,"  which  is  a  cut  very  similar  to  the 
ham. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


THE   FEEDING    OF    SWINE 


Unlike  cattle  feeding,  in  which  it  is  the  common  practice 
for  the  animals  to  be  bred  on  cheap  land  and  later  shipped  to 
the  corn-belt  to  be  fattened,  swine  are  largely  bred  and  fed  on 
the  same  farm.  The  swine  feeder  must  breed  and  grow  his 
own  stock.  The  dangers  from  hog  cholera  and  other  swine 
plagues  are  too  great  to  make  the  buying  of  feeding  swine  in 
the  open  market  practicable.  The  breeding  herd  does  not  re- 
quire much  space,  and  in  addition  the  sows  are  very  prolific, 
thus  making  it  possible  for  a  comparatively  small  number  of 


sows,    maintained    on    a    small 


area,  to  produce  many  stock 
hogs.  Swine  feeding,  therefore, 
is  inseparable  from  swine  breed- 
ing. 

No  farm  animal  equals  the 
hog  in  turning  food  quickly  into 
marketable  meat;  and  none  has 
yielded  more  profit  to  the  aver- 
age American  farmer.  In  health 
no  farm  animal  is  more  easily 
cared  for  than  the  hog;  it  requires  little  shelter  and  will  eat 
almost  any  article  of  food  placed  at  its  disposal.  From  this 
it  would  seem  that  the  hog  is  the  most  economical  meat  pro- 
ducing animal.  This  is  true  during  health.  The  effort  should 
be,  then,  so  to  feed  and  manage  the  herd  as  to  keep  it  in  good 
thrift  at  all  times. 

467 


Fig.  162.  —  Large  Yorkshire,  or 
Large  White,  Sow.  Photograph 
from  Farmers'  Advocate. 


468 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


FOOD   REQUIREMENTS   FOR   SWINE 

The  food  required  for  a  given  gain  among  swine  varies  with 
the  kind  of  food  and  the  age  and  weight  of  animals.  Foods 
vary  largely  in  the  energy  they  contain.  The  older  and  the 
larger  the  animal  the  more  food  required  for  a  given  gain. 
Wolff  and  Lehman,  after  much  experimentation  along  this  line, 
have  given  us  the  following  standards  :  — 

Wolff-Lehman  standard,  showing  the  amount  of  food  required  per  1000 
pounds  live  weight  for  both  growing  and  fattening  swine 


Condition  of  Animal 

Dry- 
Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Growing  Swine 
Breeding 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Age,  Mo. 

Weight 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

2-3 

50 

44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

4.0 

3-5 

100 

35 

5.0 

23.1 

0.8 

5.0 

5-6 

120 

32 

3.7 

21.3 

0.4 

6.0 

6-8 

200 

28 

2.8 

18.7 

0.3 

7.0 

8-12 

250 

25 

2.1 

15.3 

0.2 

7.5 

Growing  Swine 
Fattening 

2-3 

50 

44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

4.0 

3-5 

100 

35 

5.0 

23.1 

0.8 

5.0 

5-6 

150 

33 

4.3 

22.3 

0.6 

5.5 

6-8 

200 

30 

3.6 

20.5 

0.4 

6.0 

8-12 

300 

26 

3.0 

18.3 

0.3 

6.4 

As  with  the  standards  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  these 
are  arranged  to  meet  the  need  of  the  average  farm  hogs 
under  normal  conditions.  They  are  not  intended  to  be  abso- 
lute. 


THE  FEEDING   OF  SWINE  469 


PREPARING    FOOD 

Foods  for  swine  are  often  prepared  by  grinding,  soaking, 
or  cooking.  There  have  been  many  experiments  to  deter- 
mine the  efficiency  of  each  of  these  methods.  These  tests 
give  more  or  less  contradictory  results,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  from  a  perusal  of  the  literature  to  what  extent  the 
food  is  rendered  more  efficient  by  such  preparation.  There 
can  be  little  doubt,  however,  but  that  each  of  these  methods 
increases  the  efficiency  of  certain  foods  under  given  conditions. 

Grinding  feed.  —  The  advisability  of  grinding  feed  for  swine 
depends  much  on  the  kind  of  food  and  to  some  extent  on  the 
age  of  the  animals.  Most  of  the  experiments  have  been  with 
the  grinding  of  corn,  and  the  results  have  been  varying.  With 
smaller  and  harder  seeds  and  grains,  such  as  peas,  beans,  millet, 
and  the  like,  there  is  a  much  better  showing  in  favor  of  grind- 
ing. The  Canadian  Central  Experimental  Farm  conducted  ex- 
periments which  show  a  saving  of  17  per  cent  in  favor  of  grinding 
these  smaller  and  harder  seeds.  The  same  may  be  true  of  corn 
when  the  grain  is  very  hard  and  dry. 

Grinding  some  foods  increases  the  palatability  and  thus  favors 
larger  consumption.  Swine  fed  ground  food  in  the  form  of  mash 
are  not  likely  to  masticate  it,  but  simply  swallow  it,  and  in 
case  the  grain  is  not  ground  fine,  the  coarse  particles  are  not 
so  readily  or  thoroughly  digested.  In  masticating  their  own 
grain  swine  will  usually  reduce  it  to  rather  fine  particles,  par- 
ticularly if  fed  in  the  natural  state.  Thus  it  would  seem  that 
if  the  grain  is  to  be  ground,  it  should  be  ground  fine. 

Soaking  the  feed. — It  is  a  rather  common  practice  to  soak 
whole  grains  and  to  wet  meals  before  feeding.  Soaking  is  a  less 
expensive  process  and  in  many  instances  may  be  as  good  as 
grinding.  One  rather  strong  objection  to  feeding  soaked  grains, 
especially  when  the  animals  are  used  to  eating  the  grains  whole, 
is  that  they  are  likely  to  swallow  the  grains  entire  without  mas- 


470  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

tication.  Soaking  or  wetting  is,  however,  a  very  cheap  method 
of  preparing  hard  grains  for  swine,  by  rendering  them  more 
palatable  and  adding  succulence. 

Grains  should  be  soaked  long  enough  to  make  them  soft. 
They  should  not  be  permitted  to  sour.  While  sour  food,  as 
such,  is  not  injurious  to  swine,  there  is  risk  of  feeding  it  one 
time  sour  and  the  next  time  sweet,  as  digestive  disorders  will 
surely  follow  a  changing  from  one  to  the  other. 

Cooking  the  feed.  —  As  a  general  practice,  cooking  food  for 
swine  is  no  longer  regarded  as  profitable.  In  fact,  cooking 
certain  foods  renders  some  of  the  nutrients  less  digestible. 
Cooking  feeds  for  swine,  however,  has  many  advantages,  chief 
of  which  are  that  it  softens  small  and  hard  seeds ;  increases  the 
succulence  and  to  some  extent  the  palatability  of  certain  dry 
grains,  such  as  peas  and  beans ;  reduces  the  water  content  of 
certain  other  feeds,  such  as  roots  and  tubers,  which  contain 
more  water  than  swine  can  economically  use;  and  renders  foods 
more  uniformly  mixed.  Furthermore,  cooked  foods  do  not  sour 
so  readily,  and  the  hard  grains  or  particles  of  feed  become 
thoroughly  softened.  It  is  considered  best  to  put  a  variety 
of  foods  into  the  cooker.  This  serves  a  double  purpose :  since 
the  small  grains  usually  contain  more  protein,  they  form  a  more 
nearly  balanced  ration;  and  they  add  variety  to  the  ration,  and 
thus  increase  the  palatability. 

MAKING   UP   A   RATION 

The  ration  is  ordinarily  not  given  much  consideration  in 
swine  feeding,  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  of  great  importance. 
The  several  factors  considered  in  determining  the  desirability 
of  a  ration  for  other  farm  animals  are  of  equal  importance  in 
swine  feeding.  The  dry  matter,  digestible  nutrients,  protein, 
palatability,  variety,  suitability,  and  cost  of  foods  should  be 
carefully  considered. 

Feeding  capacity  among  swine. —  As  with  steers,  it  is  desirable 


THE  FEEDING   OF  SWINE  471 

to  develop  capacity  while  the  animals  are  young.  A  rather 
bulky  ration  fed  during  the  early  part  of  the  pig's  life  will  in- 
crease the  feeding  capacity  so  that  later  in  life  he  can  consume 
more  than  would  be  possible  if  he  received  only  a  concentrated 
ration  at  first.  Furthermore,  there  is  great  danger  of  overfeed- 
ing a  pig;  and  if  concentrated  foods  are  used,  this  danger  is 
greatly  increased.  If  once  a  pig  is  overfed,  he  will  never  con- 
sume as  much  feed  thereafter  as  he  otherwise  would. 

Young  animals  grow  much  more  rapidly  than  older  ones. 
The  young  pig  should  be  encouraged  to  consume  as  much  as 
he  can  use  to  the  best  advantage.  If  the  animal  is  fed  too 
small  an  amount  at  this  time,  he  not  only  fails  to  develop 
capacity,  but  does  not  make  the  most  of  that  period  of  his  life 
when  he  is  the  most  economical  producer. 

Later,  as  the  time  approaches  for  fattening  and  after  the  ca- 
pacity has  been  developed,  the  animals  should  be  put  on  a  full 
feed  of  rather  concentrated  food.  This  change  should  be  made 
gradually,  as  swine  cannot  endure  a  sudden  change  without  dis- 
orders following. 

Giving  swine  their  feed.  —  When  foods  are  fed  in  the  form  of 
mash,  there  is  always  much  crowding  about  the  trough,  which 
makes  it  very  difficult  for  the  feeder.  To  avoid  this  crowding, 
place  the  trough  alongside  the  fence  and  parallel  to  it,  so  that 
the  feeder  may  approach  the  trough  from  the  outside  and  the 
animals  from  the  inside.  A  very  good  plan  is  to  hang  a  panel 
immediately  above  the  trough,  suspended  from  either  end  of 
the  upper  side.  By  placing  a  latch  in  the  center  of  the  lower 
side  of  the  panel,  it  may  be  swung  in  and  fastened  to  the 
side  of  the  trough  in  the  lot,  thus  shutting  the  swine  out  of  the 
trough  and  giving  the  feeder  an  opportunity  to  put  in  the  feed. 
The  panel  may  now  be  swung  back  and  fastened  to  the  out- 
side of  the  trough,  giving  the  swine  access  to  the  entire  meal  at 
once.  If  there  is  more  than  one  trough  in  the  lot,  the  feed 
should  be  placed  in  all  before  any  of  the  panels  are  swung  back. 


472  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Salt  in  limited  quantities  should  be  kept  before  the  swine  at  all 
times.  A  very  good  plan  is  to  provide  a  shallow  strong  box, 
with  slats  nailed  across  the  top,  so  the  pigs  cannot  lie  in  the  box, 
then  place  charcoal  and  salt  in  the  box.  The  box  should  be 
placed  under  a  shed  and  in  a  clean  place.  It  is  best  not  to 
place  too  much  before  them  at  a  time,  but  to  keep  renewing 
the  supply  often,  as  this  keeps  the  food  clean  and  sweet. 

Fresh,  cool  water  should  be  available  at  all  times,  even  though 
the  animals  are  being  fed  mash  or  slops.  The  trough  should 
be  so  arranged  that  the  hogs  cannot  lie  in  the  water  and  thus 
litter  up  the  trough.  During  the  winter,  hogs  often  fail  to  drink 
a  sufficient  amount  of  water  and  fail  to  do  well  simply  for  this 
reason.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  the  chill  should  be  driven  off 
the  water  and  the  supply  should  be  fresh. 

FEEDING    THE    BKEEDING    HERD 

Feeding  the  breeding  herd  differs  so  essentially  from  the  fat- 
tening of  swine  that  it  is  desirable  to  treat  each  separately.  In 
feeding  the  herd  the  object  is  to  keep  the  animals  in  a  healthy 
and  thrifty  condition.  Flesh  formation  is  to  be  encouraged  and 
fattening  discouraged.  If  the  breeding  herd  is  permitted  to  be- 
come too  fat,  the  animals  fail  to  breed  regularly,  the  litters  are 
small,  and  the  dangers  from  difficult  parturition  are  increased. 
Feeding  the  breeding  herd  naturally  divides  itself  into  two  parts, 
summer  and  winter  feeding.  Each  of  these  divisions  calls  for 
widely  different  practices.  Furthermore,  the  common  practice 
of  breeding  swine  so  young  makes  it  necessary  to  consider  feed- 
ing the  younger  animals  separately  from  the  older  ones,  as  the 
young  and  growing  breeding  animal  calls  for  very  different 
foods  from  the  older  and  mature  ones. 

Feeding  the  herd  in  summer 

It  is  the  common  practice  to  confine  the  breeding  herd  in 
too  crowded  quarters.     This  close  confinement  and  a  too  exclu- 


THE  FEEDING   OF  SWINE 


473 


sive  grain  feeding  account  for  much  of  the  shy  breeding  among 
many  of  the  more  prominent  breeds.  Hogs  will  live  and  breed 
under  such  confinement,  but  greatest  success  cannot  be  attained 
under  these  systems  of  management.  Another  serious  mistake 
is  the  too  liberal  use  of  corn.  While  no  food  equals  corn  for 
fattening  swine,  it  is  not  a  good  grain  for  the  breeding  ani- 
mals, and  its  too  exclusive  use  is  a  common  cause  of  barren- 
ness or  of  small  litters. 


Fig.  163.  —  Duroc    Jersey    Boar.     First    prize,  Wisconsin  State  Fair,  1908. 

The  Duroc  Jersey  breed  of  swine  is  a  native  of  the  United  States.  This  breed, 
like  the  Poland  China,  is  noted  for  its  fat  production  and  early  maturing 
qualities.  The  breeding  qualities  of  the  breed  are  considered  good,  as  the  sows 
are  fairly  prolific.  In  size  the  breed  is  classed  as  medium.  The  color  is  red, 
the  ears  drooping,  and  face  straight.  The  breed  is  increasing  in  popularity 
in  America. 


Ample  room  should  be  provided.  Nothing  is  better  than 
pasturing  or  soiling.  Soiling  is  likely  to  involve  too  much  labor 
on  tlie  average  American  farm,  but  in  such  cases  there  is  usually 
an  abundance  of  pasture.  Sometimes  hogs  are  denied  the  run 
of  a  pasture  because  they  require  a  rather  tight  fence,  and  if 


474 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


not  properly  ringed  are  likely  to  root  up  the  sod.  While  hog- 
tight  fencing  is  expensive,  it  must  be  remembered  that  greatest 
success  cannot  be  attained  without  pasture.  In  most  local- 
ities, woven  wire  will  prove  the  most  effective  in  restraining  the 
herd.  It  need  not  be  high,  although  all  things  considered,  the 
four-foot  fence  with  a  barb-wire  on  top  will  be  found  the  most 
practicable. 

With  an  abundance  of  pasturage,  the  breeding  herd  need 
receive  no  grain  until  a  short  time  before  farrowing,  when  grain 
should  be  fed  sparingly  in  addition  to  the  pasture.  The  well- 
fed  sow  will  be  more  quiet  at  farrowing  time  and  be  less  likely 
to  injure  her  pigs  than  will  the  lean  gaunt  one  lacking  in  milk. 
When  grain  is  fed,  the  kind  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  kind 
of  pasture;  but  as  a  general  rule  nothing  is  better  than  wheat 
bran  or  middlings,  as  it  is  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter, 
two  elements  much  needed  by  the  developing  pigs.  Further- 
more, bran  stimulates  the  flow  of  milk,  which  is  very  essential 
for  the  sow  with  a  large  litter. 

Ringing  to  prevent  rooting.  —  Nothing  is  more  natural  than 
for  swine  to  root,  and  if  the  pastures  and  meadows  are  to  remain 

uninjured,  the  animals  must  be 
restrained  by  placing  rings  in 
their  noses.  This  applies  par- 
ticularly on  permanent  pastures. 
On  clover  or  alfalfa  pastures, 
there  is  not  so  much  danger  of 
the  sod  being  injured,  as  swine 
seem  to  get  a  more  nearly  bal- 
anced ration  and  do  not  have 
the  desire  to  root  up  the  sod  as 
on  blue-grass,  red-top,  timothy,  or  any  non-leguminous  pasture 
plant.  The  object  should  be  to  ring  whenever  the  swine  begin 
to  injure  the  pastures.  The  operation  of  placing  the  rings  in 
the  nose  is  not  difficult,  a  hog  ringer,  some  rings,  and  a  short 


Fig.  164.  —  First  Prize  Duroc  Jer- 
sey Boar.  Wisconsin  State  Fair, 
1908. 


THE  FEEDING   OF  SWINE  475 

rope  being  all  the  apparatus  that  is  necessary.  Tie  a  small  loop 
in  one  end  of  the  rope,  slip  the  loop  into  the  animal's  mouth 
and  draw  the  head  up.  With  the  ringer  pincers,  firmly  insert 
the  rings  into  the  nose,  but  not  too  deep,  for  if  set  so  deep  as 
to  bind  or  pinch  the  muscle  inside  the  ring,  they  will  always  be 
an  annoyance  to  the  animal.  One  or,  in  the  case  of  old  brood 
sows,  at  most  two  rings  are  all  that  are  needed  for  each  animal. 

Pasture  for  swine.  —  Swine  may  be  turned  to  any  pasture 
land  that  is  available, — permanent  or  sown  pasture.  When 
properly  ringed,  they  are  no  more  injurious  to  pastures  than  any 
other  farm  animal.  Swine  thrive  much  better  when  they  have 
access  to  green  forage  plants.  Since  the  common  pasture  plants 
are  not  available  before  warm  weather,  it  is  often  of  advantage 
to  provide  an  earlier  forage.  Rye  sown  somewhat  early  in 
the  fall  makes  an  excellent  substitute  for  pasture  grass,  early  the 
following  spring.  Among  the  permanent  pasture  grasses,  blue- 
grass  comes  on  very  early  and  provides  much  succulence  through- 
out the  season.  Clover,  alfalfa,  and  cowpeas  are  unexcelled  as 
swine  pasture  in  the  regions  where  they  thrive.  For  a  quick 
growing  crop,  rape  is  probably  to  be  accorded  first  place. 

Roots  for  swine.  —  Roots  are  valuable  as  a  food  for  swine 
during  the  late  fall  and  winter  months.  They  are  mainly 
desired  because  of  their  stored  succulence  and  to  serve  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  pasture.  In  the  United  States,  roots  have  not  been 
so  commonly  used  as  in  Canada  or  the  Old  Country,  though  of 
late  years  they  have  increased  in  favor,  and  their  usefulness, 
especially  in  the  corn-belt,  is  being  recognized.  Sugar-beets, 
mangels,  rutabagas,  turnips,  and  carrots  are  grown  as  food  for 
swine.  Of  these,  many  prefer  mangels  largely  because  of  their 
high  yield  per  acre,  although  they  will  not  give  as  good  results 
as  sugar-beets. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke,  a  tuber  belonging  to  the  sunflower 
family,  is  often  grown  as  a  succulent  for  swine.  This  tuber  is 
highly  esteemed  for  fall,  winter,  and  spring  use.     It  is  planted 


476 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


in  much  the  same  way  as  the  potato  and  grows  from  the  eye 
of  the  tuber,  which  may  be  planted  whole,  or  cut,  usually  whole 
if  planted  in  the  fall  and  cut  if  planted  in  the  spring.  By  re- 
moving the  hogs  before  all  the  tubers  are  secured,  this  crop 
may  be  grown  successively  for  many  years  without  replanting. 


Fig.  165.  —  Chester  White  Boar.     Photograph  by  C.  S.  Plumb. 

The  Chester  White  breed  of  swine  first  became  prominent  in  Chester  County, 
Pennsylvania.  This  breed  is  noted  for  its  fat  production.  The  breeding 
qualities  rank  high.  It  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  prolific  of  the  fat- 
producing  hogs.  In  size  the  breed  is  classed  as  the  largest  of  the  middle 
weights.     The  color  is  white,  the  ears  drooping,  and  the  face  straight. 


Many  swine  breeders  and  feeders  do  not  grow  artichokes 
because  of  the  opinion  that  when  once  established  they  are 
difficult  to  destroy.  This  is  not  true.  To  destroy  the  crop, 
let  the  hogs  root  out  every  tuber,  then  plow  and  plant  to  corn 
or  some  other  cultivated  crop. 

Pumpkins  and  squashes  are  much  relished  by  swine  in  the  late 


THE  FEEDING    OF  SWINE  477 

fall  and  early  winter.  The  custom  of  planting  the  pumpkins 
in  the  corn  results  in  being  able  to  grow  them  at  almost  no  ex- 
pense; and  their  keeping  qualities  add  to  their  value  as  a  suc- 
culent food  for  winter  feeding.  In  addition  to  their  succulence 
the  seed  is  very  rich  in  protein;  thus  they  make  a  very  good 
supplement  for  corn.  Pumpkin  seeds  are  a  natural  vermifuge. 
When  many  pumpkins  are  fed,  the  animals  should  be  watched 
closely  to  see  that  they  do  not  get  an  overfeed  of  seed  and  di- 
gestive disorders  follow. 

Feeding  the  herd  in  winter 

More  care  must  be  given  the  feeding  of  the  herd  in  winter 
than  in  summer ;  although  if  roots  or  other  succulent  food  has 
been  provided,  the  matter  will  be  less  difficult  than  if  the 
feeder  is  obliged  to  rely  entirely  on  dry  feeds.  The  cheapness 
and  the  great  abundance  of  corn  really  adds  to  the  difficulty 
of  wintering  the  herd.  The  great  temptation  all  through  the 
corn-belt  is  to  feed  a  too  exclusive  corn  ration.  This  difficulty 
is  increased  by  the  fact  that  no  food  equals  corn  in  the  fatten- 
ing of  swine;  and  the  majority  of  swine  feeders  let  the  herd  run 
with  the  fattening  swine,  with  the  result  that  the  breeding 
herd  gets  so  fat  that  its  breeding  powers  are  materially  lessened, 
the  sows  often  become  barren,  and  those  that  do  breed  farrow 
small  litters  of  pigs  lacking  thrift  and  vigor. 

To  avoid  such  difficulties,  the  herd  must  be  separated  from 
the  fattening  swine  and  fed  a  growing  ration  rather  than  a 
fattening  ration.  The  object  should  be  to  keep  the  herd  thrifty, 
but  not  fat.  This  can  best  be  done  by  feeding  such  grains  as 
wheat  bran,  middlings,  and  the  like,  also  roots,  pumpkins,  and 
skim-milk  for  succulence.  Alfalfa,  clover,  or  cowpea  hay  in  small 
quantities  maybe  fed  with  profit.  Hay  should  be  fed  from  a  rack 
and  not  thrown  upon  the  ground,  as  the  animals  will  tramp  it 
under  their  feet.  When  the  hay  is  clean  and  sweet,  and  slightly 
salty,  the  swine  will  eat  it  and  be  much  benefited  thereby. 


478  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

When  the  grain  is  fed  in  the  form  of  meal,  better  results  will 
be  secured  by  mixing  with  water,  or  better  still  skim-milk,  and 
fed  as  a  mash.  If  skim-milk  is  used,  much  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  feed  the  animals  too  much,  as  they  will  take  on  flesh 
rapidly  and  may  become  too  fat.  A  very  good  mixture  is  made 
by  using  one  part  meal  to  five  parts  of  water  or  skim-milk. 

Another  common  mistake  is  confining  the  herd  too  closely  in 
the  winter  season.  The  quarters  become  very  muddy.  While 
it  is  not  possible  to  keep  swine  from  rooting  when  the  ground 
is  soft  or  from  wallowing  when  the  weather  is  warm,  they 
should  be  given  sufficient  room  for  exercise,  and  provided  with 
quarters  free  from  mud  where  they  may  eat  and  sleep,  although 
the  platform  on  which  they  feed  should  be  separated  from  the 
one  on  which  they  sleep. 

Feeding  the  young  and  old  herd.  —  Since  the  young  animals 
are  building  bone  and  flesh  for  their  own  bodies,  they  need  a  more 
nitrogenous  ration  than  the  older  animals  that  have  attained 
their  growth  and  need  only  enough  protein  to  supply  the  waste. 
While  the  feeding  of  the  young  herd  will  depend  much  on  the 
age  at  which  the  animals  are  bred,  it  may  be  said  in  a  general 
way  that  the  young  herd  needs  a  narrower  ration  than  the  old 
herd.  Thus  if  the  feeder  has  only  sufficient  skim-milk  for  a 
part  of  the  herd,  it  would  prove  more  profitable  to  feed  the 
young  herd  the  milk  in  connection  with  the  grain  and  give 
the  old  ones  water  with  their  other  food.  In  this  way  the 
younger  animals  will  get  the  necessary  mineral  matter.  The 
importance  of  well-chosen  nourishment  for  the  young  herd 
cannot  be  overestimated. 

FATTENING    SWINE 

Feeding  swine  for  fattening  differs  essentially  from  feeding 
the  breeding  herd.  In  fattening,  the  sole  object  is  the  economic 
production  of  pork.  As  a  rule  the  animals  are  forced  to  the 
limit  of  their  ability  as  feeders,  fattened  and  marketed  under  one 


THE  FEEDING    OF  SWINE 


479 


year  of  age.  In  this  respect  pork  production  is  somewhat  similar 
to  beef  production.  The  same  general  factors  apply  in  both 
cases.  Pork  production  is  as  much  of  a  business  as  beef  pro- 
duction and  should  be  conducted  accordingly. 

Feeding  the  lard-hog 

If  light  hogs  are  to  be  the  product,  the  fattening  process 
will  begin  much  earlier  in  the  life  of  the  animal  than  if  heavy 
hogs  are  to  be  produced.  If  lard-hogs  are  to  be  produced,  the 
feeds  will  be  much  different  from  those  required  if  bacon  is  to 
be  the  product.     In  the  lard-hog,  thick  fat  is  desired,  while  in 


Fig.   166.  —  Chester  White  Pigs. 


Prize  winners  at  Wise 
1908. 


onsin  State  Fair  in 


the  bacon-hog  the  flesh  covering  is  rather  thin  and  well  inter- 
spread  ;  that  is,  the  lean  and  fat  are  placed  in  layers,  giving  the 
meat  a  marbled  appearance,  when  cut  crossways.  In  the  lard- 
hog,  fattening  foods  are  to  be  fed,  while  in  the  bacon-hog  flesh- 
ing foods  should  be  used. 

Feeding  the  lard-hog  in  summer. —  As  a  rule,  swine  should  be 
fed  in  comparatively  small  droves.  It  is  very  important  that 
the  drove  be  made  up  of  individuals  of  the  same  age  as  well  as 
the  same  size.  If  a  few  of  the  individuals  are  larger  and  stronger, 
they  will  crowd  the  smaller  and  weaker  ones  back  and  get  more 
than  their  allotment  of  the  food. 


480  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Whatever  food-stuffs  are  used,  the  swine  should  be  put  on 
full  feed  slowly.  Much  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  throw 
them  off  their  feed  in  the  beginning,  as  it  will  take  some  time  for 
animals  to  recover.  For  best  results  swine  should  never  be  fed 
more  than  they  will  clean  up  at  each  meal.  Fattening  swine 
make  better  returns  for  the  food  consumed  when  their  appetites 
are  kept  keen;  they  wait  eagerly  for  their  food  and  relish  it 
much  better  than  when  overfed.  If  convenient,  they  should  be 
fed  both  mash  and  dry  grain.  Nothing  makes  a  better  food 
for  swine  in  the  fore  part  of  the  fattening  period  than  meal  and 
skim-milk  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  meal  to  five 
of  milk.  As  the  period  progresses  the  portion  of  meal  should 
be  gradually  increased  until  towards  the  close  the  proportion 
may  be  one  part  to  three  parts  of  skim-milk.  If  the  skim-milk 
is  not  available,  water  may  be  used  to  make  the  mash.  If  water 
is  used,  the  mash  should  be  fed  much  thicker,  using  only  enough 
water  to  mix  the  meal,  as  it  is  useless  to  fill  the  fattening  animal 
up  on  water  and  thus  prevent  the  consumption  of  nutritious 
foods.  When  such  is  the  case,  some  linseed  meal  should  be 
used,  say  10  per  cent  of  the  meal.  In  either  case,  dry  grain 
should  be  fed  in  addition. 

Swine  will  make  much  better  returns  for  the  food  consumed 
if  they  have  access  to  green  forage.  Where  fattening  hogs  are 
turned  to  pasture,  it  must  be  so  arranged  that  they  need  not 
graze  over  too  large  an  area.  If  at  all  convenient,  it  will  be  more 
profitable  to  cut  the  green  forage  and  feed  to  the  hogs.  In 
this  way  a  smaller  area  will  support  a  larger  number  of  hogs,  and 
the  swine  need  not  rustle  to  get  the  much  needed  succulence. 
The  number  of  hogs  that  may  be  pastured  on  an  acre  will  de- 
pend on  the  age  and  size  of  the  animals,  the  quality  and  kind 
of  crop,  and  other  conditions.  For  an  average  it  may  be  said 
that  an  acre  of  blue-grass  will  support  eight  to  ten  hogs  for 
two  months  or  more  in  the  spring,  and  for  two  months  in  the 
fall ;  red  clover  should  support  six  to  ten  hogs  for  three  or  four 


THE  FEEDING   OF  SWINE  481 

months ;  alfalfa  from  ten  to  fifteen  for  five  months ;  cowpeas 
six  to  eight  for  two  or  three  months;  and  artichokes  should 
support  from  six  to  ten  hogs  to  the  acre  for  a  considerable  length 
of  time  in  the  late  fall.  Clover,  alfalfa  or  cowpea  pasture  is 
to  be  preferred.  Alfalfa  in  those  sections  where  it  will  thrive 
is  regarded  as  the  leading  pasture  plant  for  swine.  It  should 
not  be  grazed  so  closely  as  to  make  mowing  unnecessary.  To 
keep  alfalfa  in  the  best  condition  it  should  be  mowed  from  one  to 
three  times  in  a  season.  These  estimates  are  to  be  modified 
according  to  conditions. 

It  is  very  important  that  fattening  swine  be  provided  with 
shade  and  an  abundance  of  cool,  fresh  water.  The  sebacious 
glands  of  the  hog  are  very  rudimentary,  and  the  animal  can- 
not perspire  and  therefore  must  keep  cool  by  radiation.  This 
is  one  reason  why  hogs  desire  mud  wallows,  and  for  best  results 
these  must  be  provided,  particularly  for  thick,  fat  animals,  which 
suffer  greatly  with  the  heat  during  the  warm  summer  months. 
To  avoid  the  extreme  heat  of  summer,  many  swine  feeders  plan 
to  have  the  animals  fat  by  the  first  of  July,  when  they  are  sold. 

Feeding  the  lard-hog  in  winter.  —  When  roots  or  other  succu- 
lence is  available  for  winter  use,  much  better  results  can  be 
obtained  than  if  dry  feed  alone  must  be  depended  on.  Sugar- 
beets,  roots,  turnips,  potatoes,  artichokes,  and  pumpkins  are 
often  used.  No  succulence  exceeds  skim-milk  for  winter  feed- 
ing. In  the  absence  of  any  other  succulent  food,  mashes 
should  be  made,  as  suggested  for  summer  feeding.  For  best 
results, mash  or  succulent  food,  grain,  and  a  small  amount  of  dry 
forage  should  be  fed.  Sweet,  clean  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  should 
constitute  the  dry  forage.     It  should  be  fed  from  a  rack. 

Care  should  be  exercised  in  providing  dry  quarters  and  lots 
as  free  from  mud  as  possible.  The  warmth  of  the  quarters  best 
suited  for  fattening  swine  may  depend  somewhat  on  the  feeds 
used.  When  corn,  in  one  of  its  many  forms,  as  ear  corn,  shelled 
corn,  corn  meal,  and  the  like,  constitutes  the  major  part  of  the 
2i 


482  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

ration,  the  quarters  need  not  be  so  warm  as  when  an  abundance 
of  more  succulent  food  is  fed,  such  as  skim-milk.  It  has  been 
proved  that  for  best  results,  when  skim-milk  or  other  very  suc- 
culent food  is  freely  employed,  the  quarters  should  be  rather 
warm  yet  very  well  ventilated  and  well  lighted.  Fattening 
swine  are  not  likely  to  spend  much  time  in  poorly  ventilated, 
dark,  and    foul-smelling   quarters.      They  prefer   the   cold  to 


Fig.    167.  —  Victoria    Sow.     First    prize,   Ohio   State   Fair.     Photograph   by 

C.  S.  Plumb. 

The  native  home  of  the  Victoria  is  in  the  United  States.  It  is  somewhat 
similar  to  the  Cheshire,  perhaps  tending  more  towards  the  lard  type.  The 
breeding  qualities  are  fair,  the  sows  producing  medium-sized  litters.  In  size 
the  breed  is  classed  as  small.  The  color  is  white,  the  ears  erect,  and  the  face 
dished. 

such  places,  and  for  this  reason  swine  are  often  known  to  build 
a  nest  or  bed  out  in  the  open  lot,  illustrating  that  they  prefer 
exposure  to  foul  quarters.  When  sweet,  well  lighted,  and  well 
ventilated  quarters  are  provided,  swine  will  be  found  to  occupy 
them  except  when  feeding  and  taking  exercise.  Hogs  are  not 
dirty  animals  by  nature,  except  as  they  like  to  wallow  in 
warm  weather. 


THE  FEEDING   OF  SWINE  483 

During  the  cold  winter  season,  swine  often  fail  to  drink  suffi- 
cient water  to  meet  their  needs.  This  often  seriously  in- 
terferes with  their  fattening.  To  avoid  this  difficulty,  they 
should  be  encouraged  to  drink  water.  That  contained  in 
skim-milk,  slop,  or  other  succulence  is  not  sufficient.  When  it 
is  at  all  possible,  the  chill  should  be  taken  off  before  the  water 
is  offered  the  animals.  Swine  compelled  to  eat  snow  or  lick  ice 
to  get  water  will  surely  fail  to  fatten  profitably.  The  importance 
of  this  cannot  be  overestimated,  for  in  addition  to  not  gaining 
rapidly  the  system  becomes  weakened  and  the  animals  contract 
diseases  more  readily. 

Feeding  the  bacon-hog 

In  the  production  of  bacon,  the  foods  must  differ  from  those 
used  in  feeding  the  fat-hog.  In  some  cases  the  same  food 
stuffs  may  be  used  in  part,  but  the  mixture  must  be  varied. 
Corn,  the  mainstay  in  the  production  of  the  fat-hog,  can- 
not be  used  with  success  in  larger  proportions  than  one-third 
of  the  grain  ration.  A  larger  proportion  is  likely  to  produce 
an  undesirable  quality  of  bacon.  The  foods  very  largely  used 
are  shorts,  oats,  peas,  barley,  and  skim-milk.  Barley  is  perhaps 
the  food  most  used,  especially  in  Canada,  where  bacon  production 
finds  much  favor.  It  is  often  fed  ground  or  soaked.  Usually 
it  is  fed  in  connection  with  small  amounts  of  other  food,  as  peas, 
oil  meal,  finely  ground  oats,  tankage,  and  the  like.  Peas  are 
used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  production  of  bacon  in 
Canada.  "Canada  pea-fed  bacon"  has  good  market  repu- 
tation. Among  some  large  bacon  feeders,  however,  peas  are  not 
held  in  high  estimation,  the  statement  being  made  that  they  give 
dry,  rather  hard,  and  flavorless  bacon.  Oats  are  often  objected 
to  because  of  their  hulls,  which  contain  little  nutrition  and 
much  crude  fiber;  yet  when  the  price  is  low,  they  are  extensively 
used.  Crushing  the  oats  is  considered  the  best  method  of 
preparation. 


484  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Skim-milk  is  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  bacon  feeder  ; 
therefore  localities  devoted  to  dairying  other  than  market 
milk  are  admirably  adapted  for  the  production  of  bacon.  It 
may  be  fed  in  the  same  proportion  as  to  the  fat-hog,  —  that  is, 
three  to  five  parts  milk  to  one  of  meal. 

Summer  feeding  on  pasture.  —  Clover,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  or 
rape  are  excellent  pastures  for  bacon  production.  Less  protein- 
rich  grain  or  less  skim-milk  is  required  when  the  swine  have 
access  to  such  ranges.  No  cheaper  or  more  economical  gains 
can  be  obtained  than  from  a  light  grain  ration  when  the  animals 
have  these  pastures. 

Winter  feeding  in  dry-lot.  —  Bacon  production  during  the 
winter  season  is  approximately  25  per  cent  more  costly  than 
feeding  on  pasture.  For  best  results,  some  succulent  food 
should  be  supplied.  This  may  be  furnished  by  growing  roots, 
such  as  sugar-beets,  mangels,  turnips,  and  the  like,  and  storing 
them  for  winter  use.  When  the  animals  are  confined  to  a  dry- 
lot,  more  protein-rich  food  is  required,  which  calls  for  larger 
amounts  of  oil  meal,  shorts,  tankage,  or  skim-milk,  most  of  which 
must  be  purchased.  This  balancing  is  very  essential  in  the 
production  of  bacon,  as  quality  is  what  commands  the  extra 
price.  The  lean  and  fat  must  be  well  interspersed,  and  this  can 
be  secured  only  by  properly  balancing  the  ration. 

SAMPLE   RATIONS   FOR   SWINE 

To  give  sample  rations  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  is  a  com- 
paratively simple  matter,  but  such  is  not  the  case  with  swine. 
The  composition  and  amount  of  the  ration  are  influenced  by 
the  age  and  weight  of  the  animal.  For  100  pounds  live  weight, 
the  younger  the  animal  the  more  food  required,  and  in  addition 
it  should  contain  more  protein  than  for  the  older  animal.  To 
illustrate  the  ration  for  fattening  swine  of  increasing  size  the 
following  data  is  made  up  from  Bulletin  106  of  the  Iowa  Ex- 
periment Station :  — 


THE  FEEDING   OF  SWINE 


485 


Amount  of  Food  consumed  per  Hog 


Average  Daily  Feed  per  Hog,  Pounds. 
Periods  of  Four  Weeks  Each 

Whole 
Time 

Kind  of  Grain 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Hogs  weighing  40  Pounds  at  Start  and  140  at  Close 

Dry  ear  corn  x     .     . 
Soaked  shelled  corn 
Dry  corn  meal 
Soaked  corn  meal     . 

2.4 
2.4 
2.3 

2.6 

2.8 
3.0 
2.9 
3.2 

3.0 
3.1 
3.4 
3.5 

4.0 
3.7 
4.5 
4.9 

4.6 
4.1 
5.0 
5.6 

3.4 
3.2 
3.6 
4.0 

Hogs  weighing  50  Pounds  at  Start  and  150  at  Close 

Dry  ear  corn  l 
Soaked  shelled  corn 
Dry  corn  meal 
Soaked  corn  meal     . 

3.0 
3.1 
3.0 
3.2 

3.4 
3.9 
3.6 
4.2 

3.8 
4.1 
3.9 
4.5 

4.5 
4.8 
4.6 
5.2 

3.7 
4.0 
3.8 
4.3 

Hogs  weighing  100  Pounds  at  Start  and  290  at  Close 

Dry  ear  corn1  .     .     . 
Soaked  shelled  corn 
Dry  corn  meal 
Soaked  corn  meal     . 

3.8 
3.6 
3.6 
4.1 

5.2 
5.1 
4.3 
6.3 

6.7 
5.8 
5.8 
6.7 

7.8 
7.3 
7.2 

.  8.4 

7.3 

7.0 
7.0 

8.4 

6.2 
5.7 
5.6 
6.8 

Hogs  weighing  200  Pounds  at  Start  and  365  at  Close 

Dry  ear  corn1 .     .     . 
Soaked  shelled  corn 
Dry  corn  meal     .     . 
Soaked  corn  meal     . 

7.5 
7.6 
7.3 
8.1 

9.3 
9.7 
9.9 
9.6 

7.7 
8.6 
9.9 
9.9 

To  give  an  idea  of   the  ration  for  fattening  swine  when  a 
supplement  is  used  in  connection  with  corn,  the  following  data 

1  The  weight  of  the  cob  has  been  deducted  from  the  figures  for  shelled  corn. 


486 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


are  taken  from   Bulletin  65  of  the   Missouri   Experiment  Sta- 
tion :  — 

Feed  and  Gains  in  Weight,  90  days 


Ration 


Corn  meal  5  parts,  linseed-oil  meal  1 

part 

Corn  meal  10  parts,  linseed -oil  meal  1 

part1 

Corn  meal  10  parts,  linseed-oil  meal  1 

part 

Corn  meal  2  parts,  wheat  middlings  1 

part 

Corn  meal  4  parts,  wheat  middlings  1 

part 

Corn  meal  2  parts,  ground  oats  1  part 
Corn  meal  4  parts,  ground  oats  1  part 
Corn  meal  4  parts,  wheat  bran  1  part 
Corn  and  cob  meal     ...... 

Corn  meal 

Soaked  shelled  corn 

Shelled  corn,  bone  meal  2    . 
Shelled  corn 


Initial 
Weight 

Final 
Wteight 

Daily 

Grain 

Per 

Head 

116 

260 

5.6 

131 

209 

7.6 

118 

209 

5.3 

114 

226 

5.3 

117 

213 

5.0 

120 

.  173 

3.7 

111 

166 

3.8 

111 

188 

4.4 

112 

135 

3.0 

115 

183 

4.2 

115 

172 

3.6 

114 

153 

3.0 

115 

152 

3.0 

Daily 
Gain 
Per 

Head 


1.5 

1.5 

1.5 

1.2 

1.1 
0.6 
0.6 
0.9 
0.3 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 


1  Sixty  days. 

2  6.2  pounds  bone  meal  per  head  in  ninety  days. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE   BREEDING    OF    SWINE 

As  previously  stated,  pork  production  differs  from  beef  pro- 
duction in  the  fact  that  swine  are  bred  and  fed  on  the  same 
farm,  whereas  feeding  cattle  are  frequently  bred  on  the  cheap 
lands  and  shipped  to  the  corn-belt  to  be  fed.  Since  swine  are 
reared  and  finished  in  one  place,  if  success  is  to  be  attained,  the 
feeder  must  be  a  breeder  as  well.  Many  good  swine  feeders 
often  fail  to  exercise  proper  judgment  in  breeding.  Breeding 
swine  is  as  much  a  business  as  feeding  swine,  and  should  be 
conducted  with  that  understanding.  When  the  price  of  hogs 
is  high,  the  tendency  is  to  rush  into  swine  raising,  forgetting 
the  advantages  of  good  quality,  with  the  result  that  in  a  few 
months  the  hog  market  is  glutted  with  animals  of  inferior 
quality  which,  of  course,  command  only  a  low  price.  This  is 
discouraging,  and  the  enthusiast  of  a  few  months  quits  the 
hog  business.  With  proper  management,  no  line  of  farming 
will  prove  more  profitable  than  pork  production,  especially  if 
continued  over  a  long  series  of  years. 

PLAN    OF    BREEDING 

Before  beginning  to  breed  swine,  one  should  decide  on  a  plan. 
Before  formulating  the  plan  one  will  have  to  decide  upon  the 
kind  of  hog  he  is  going  to  breed.  Some  will  wish  to  breed  market 
hogs  only,  others  breeding  hogs  only,  while  still  others  may  wish 
to  produce  both  market  and  breeding  hogs.  When  market 
hogs  only  are  to  be  produced,  grades  may  prove  as  profitable  as 

487 


488  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

pure-bred  animals,  especially  if  much  care  is  taken  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  grades  and  a  pure-bred  boar  is  used.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  breeding  hogs  are  to  be  produced,  pure-bred  ani- 
mals only  can  be  grown  with  profit.  This  calls  for  much  knowl- 
edge of  the  principles  of  breeding,  such  as  selection,  mating,  and 
the  like.  Another  question  that  will  also  modify  the  plan 
is  the  amount  of  capital  available  for  the  establishment  of  the 
business.  When  the  capital  is  small  and  the  experience  want- 
ing, the  grade  herd  is  to  be  preferred.     The  beginner  may  well 


Fig.  168.  —  Champion  Hampshire  Swine.     Bred  and  owned  by  John  Good- 
win, Potomac,  Iowa. 

The  Hampshire  breed  of  swine  was  developed  in  the  United  States.  Like  the 
Poland  China,  this  breed  is  noted  for  its  early  maturing  and  economic  fattening 
qualities.  As  breeders  the  sows  rank  high.  In  size  the  breed  is  classed  with 
the  middle  weights.  The  color  is  black,  with  a  white  belt  about  the  body. 
The  breed  is  increasing  in  popularity,  and  animals  of  the  breed  are  in  much 
demand  by  the  packers. 

start  with  not  more  than  two  or  three  sows,  in  pig  when  pur- 
chased, as  he  can  acquire  much  valuable  experience  with  even  so 
small  a  number,  while  his  risk  will  not  be  great.  The  second  year 
he  may  add  to  the  number  of  sows,  secure  a  suitable  and  pure- 
bred boar,  and  each  succeeding  year  carefully  increase  the 
number  of  sows  bred.  In  this  way,  one  should  soon  find 
himself  in  possession  of  a  large  herd,  and  of  sufficient  knowl- 
edge to  put  it  to  profitable  use. 


THE  BREEDING    OF  SWINE  489 

Cooperative  breeding.  —  Pure-bred  boars  are  likely  to  be 
costly,  and  to  get  the  most  out  of  them  should  be  kept  in  con- 
stant use.  Since  the  average  farmer  does  not  possess  sows 
enough  to  get  the  maximum  use  of  the  boar,  it  is  often  a 
good  plan  for  a  number  of  farmers  to  cooperate  in  the  purchase 
of  a  boar.  Such  cooperation  not  only  reduces  the  cost  of  service, 
but  aids  in  increasing  the  uniformity  of  the  animals  in  a  locality. 
Furthermore,  when  a  number  of  farmers  cooperate  in  the  pur- 
chase of  a  hog,  a  much  better  animal  can  be  secured  than  if  each 
purchases  in  his  own  account. 

SELECTING   BREEDING   STOCK 

Many  practical  questions  enter  into  the  selection  of  swine  for 
breeding  purposes.  As  a  general  rule,  the  animals  chosen  should 
be  rather  large  for  the  breed  to  which  they  belong.  In  the  past 
few  years  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  reduce  the  size  of  mar- 
ket hogs,  and  this  has  extended  to  the  brood  sows,  with  the  re- 
sult that  many  of  the  sows  now  used  for  breeding  are  decidedly 
too  small  for  the  farrowing  and  raising  of  two  large  and  strong 
litters  of  pigs  each  year.  Probably  the  greatest  fault  of  im- 
proved swine  breeding  is  the  striving  for  too  great  refinement. 
If  large  litters  of  strong  pigs  are  to  result,  the  sows  must  possess 
much  size  and  length  and  a  good  constitution,  as  shown  in  suffi- 
cient width  and  depth  of  the  chest  region. 

The  type.  —  A  consideration  of  prime  importance  in  the  selec- 
tion of  a  breed  or  type  is  the  likes  and  the  dislikes  of  the  breeder. 
One  is  much  more  likely  to  succeed  with  the  animals  he  likes  and 
to  fail  with  other  animals  of  equal  merit  that  he  dislikes.  Other 
than  this  there  is  little  to  choose,  as  each  breed  has  its  weak  and 
strong  points.  In  some  sections,  however,  certain  breeds  will 
remain  the  most  popular  because  of  their  adaptability  to  the 
climate.  Thus  in  certain  parts  of  the  United  States,  especially 
the  West  and  South,  white  hogs  are  not  looked  on  with  favor 
because  they  are  more  liable  to  be  sun-scalded,  to  have  scurvy 


490  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  often  mangy  skins.  Again,  in  the  corn-belt,  bacon  types 
doubtless  will  never  be  most  popular  because  the  available  food 
is  not  such  as  to  produce  bacon. 

Uniformity.  —  In  selecting  animals  for  the  breeding  herd  it  is 
very  important  that  they  be  similar  in  age,  size,  color,  condi- 
tion, and  quality.  The  importance  of  this  similarity  among 
market  swine  cannot  be  overestimated.  To  get  animals  that 
will  remain  uniform,  it  is  essential  to  know  something  of  the  herd 
from  which  they  come.  A  herd  noted  for  its  uniformity  is 
likely  to  produce  animals  that  are  uniform.  In  addition  to  the 
uniformity,  the  herd  should  be  prolific.  The  sows  should  farrow 
and  raise  two  litters  of  six  or  more  pigs  each  year.  Prolificacy 
is  hereditary.  A  prolific  herd  is  likely  to  produce  prolific 
animals. 

THE    BOAR 

The  boar  is  sire  of  the  pigs  from  many  dams,  and  his  general 
influence,  therefore,  is  much  greater  than  that  of  any  sow  can 
possibly  be.  Therefore,  for  general  improvement  the  boar 
should  be  largely  relied  on,  as  he  can  effect  change  either  for  good 
or  bad  much  more  rapidly  than  the  sows.  The  boar  should  be 
the  best  that  the  number  and  quality  of  the  sows  or  the  circum- 
stances of  the  breeder  will  permit.  The  ordinary  breeder  can- 
not afford  an  extremely  high-priced  boar  and  is  compelled  to  do 
the  best  he  can  with  the  money  at  his  command.  This  may  be 
a  blessing  in  disguise,  for  it  should  be  the  work  of  the  ordinary 
breeder  to  grow  market  hogs,  and  when  the  boar  is  used  to  sire 
market  hogs,  there  is  a  limit  beyond  which  one  cannot  go  and 
realize  a  profit  from  swine  breeding.  Only  the  man  who  is 
breeding  show  animals  can  afford  to  pay  a  large  sum  for  a  boar 
and  make  a  profit  on  his  investment.  In  any  event,  however, 
the  animal  that  is  chosen  should  be  a  pure-bred,  for  if  not 
pure-bred  he  cannot  be  depended  on  to  stamp  his  own 
qualities  on  his  offspring.     If  the  boar  should  be  put  to  service 


THE  BREEDING   OF  SWINE  491 

too  immature,  he  cannot  be  expected  to  get  vigorous  pigs. 
He  should  not  be  used  before  eight  months  of  age,  and  it  will 
be  more  profitable  in  the  long  run  to  defer  using  him  until  one 
year  of  age.  When  once  a  satisfactory  boar  is  found,  he  should 
be  kept  in  service  as  long  as  he  gives  satisfaction.  When  of  no 
use  as  a  boar,  he  should  be  castrated,  and  fattened  for  the 
market. 

the  sows 

As  suggested  for  the  boar,  when  at  all  possible  the  sows  that 
are  to  form  the  foundation  herd  should  be  chosen  on  the  farm 
where  raised.  This  personal  inspection  majr  call  for  an  extra 
outlay  in  expense,  but  it  will  be  well  worth  while,  as  it  enables 
one  to  know  the  herd  from  which  they  sprang  and  in  this  way 
gain  an  idea  as  to  the  kind  of  offspring  that  may  be  expected. 
Furthermore,  if  the  sows  are  purchased  from  a  successful 
breeder,  the  beginner  can  get  much  information  as  to  the  care 
and  management  of  swine. 

The  age  at  which  to  purchase  foundation  animals  is  a  much- 
discussed  question,  many  preferring  to  buy  as  soon  as  the  pigs 
are  weaned,  since  usually  they  can  be  purchased  more  cheaply, 
others  preferring  to  wait  until  the  animals  are  bred  and  to 
purchase  sows  in  pig.  Purchasing  sows  already  in  pig  will  save 
to  the  beginner  a  considerable  outlay  at  the  start,  and,  all 
things  considered,  it  is  perhaps  the  most  desirable  time  to 
acquire  them. 

A  good  brood  sow  is  a  roomy  animal,  with  rather  long  deep 
body  and  well-developed  pelvic  region.  The  back  should  be 
strong  and  well  supported,  as  a  weak  or  sagging  back  is  very 
objectionable  in  breeding  or  market  swine.  There  should  be 
evidence  of  thrift  and  constitutional  vigor,  as  these  indicate 
prepotency.  A  good  brood  sow  will  have  many  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  a  good  milk  cow.  She  should  be  motherly,  with 
a  gentle  quiet  disposition;  she  should  be  a  good  milker,  thus 


492  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

providing  much  nutrition  for  her  offspring ;  and  she  should  be 
prolific  in  farrowing  healthy,  quick-growing  pigs.  She  should 
have  six  or  more  functional  teats  on  either  side.  When  inspect- 
ing the  teats,  one  should  see  that  there  are  no  blind  teats  either 
in  the  front  or  in  the  rear. 

Productive  period.  —  On  the  average  farm,  sow  pigs  are  bred 
too  young.  Well-kept  sows  will  often  breed  as  young  as  three 
months  of  age.  They  should  not,  however,  under  any  con- 
sideration, be  bred  under  six  months,  eight  months  being  as 
young  as  it  is  proper  to  breed  them.  Sows  bred  too  young 
will  remain  not  only  underdeveloped,  but  small  litters  of  weak 
pigs  will  result.  There  is  a  rather  widespread  and  growing 
practice  of  breeding  sows  at  six  to  eight  months  of  age,  rais- 
ing one  litter  of  pigs  and  then  fattening  the  sows  for  market. 
This  is  not  good  practice,  for  once  a  good  brood  sow  is  found 
she  should  be  kept  as  long  as  she  continues  to  breed  true  and  do 
well.  Some  sows  will  remain  productive  until  five  or  six  years 
of  age,  while  others  will  become  clumsy  or  vicious  before  that 
time. 

Season  to  breed.  —  Throughout  the  United  States  the  main 
crop  of  pigs  should  come  in  the  warm  days  of  March  to  May, 
and  the  second  crop  in  September  to  November.  Since  the 
period  of  gestation  in  sows  is  approximately  112  days,  this 
means  that  they  should  be  mated  in  December,  January,  and 
February  for  the  first  crop  and  in  June,  July,  and  August  for 
the  second  crop.  As  a  general  rule  in  the  northern  states,  a 
sow  should  not  be  bred  so  as  to  farrow  her  pigs  in  the  spring 
before  March,  nor  later  in  the  fall  than  October.  Both  early 
spring  litters  and  those  of  early  fall  will  pay  the  best  on  the 
average,  as  the  care  of  the  pigs  in  the  mild  season  is  not  so 
difficult,  and  such  pigs  are  likely  to  make  larger  and  more 
economic  gain  than  litters  farrowed  in  the  hot  days  of  summer 
or  the  cold  days  of  winter. 

Method  of  mating.  — As  a  rule  sows  come  around  every  three 


THE  BREEDING   OF  SWINE 


493 


weeks  ;  hence  if  the  sow  has  been  mated  and  for  some  reason  has 
failed  to  conceive,  she  should  make  the  fact  known  in  20  to  21 
days  after  coupling.  A  careful  record  should  be  kept  of  the 
date  of  mating  so  that  the  probable  time  of  farrowing  may  be 
known. 

Often  one  wishes  to  mate  a  large  heavy  boar  to  a  small  sow 
or  a  small  short-legged  boar  to  a  large  sow,  and  to  facilitate  this 


Fig.    169.  —  Cheshire    Pig    of    Good  Type    owned    at   New   York    State 
College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

The  Cheshire  breed  of  swine  originated  in  New  York.  The  breed  is  noted  for 
occupying  a  position  between  the  true  lard  and  the  true  bacon  types.  It  is 
rather  slow  maturing,  but  the  quality  of  flesh  is  unexcelled.  The  breeding 
qualities  are  excellent.  In  size  the  breed  is  classed  as  small.  The  color  is 
white,  the  ears  erect,  and  the  face  slightly  dished. 


the  construction  of  a  breeding-crate  will  be  found  extremely 
useful,  if  not  a  necessity  to  insure  a  successful  service.  This 
crate  is  simple,  resembling  a  strong  shipping-crate  with  one 
end  out.  A  very  convenient  size  is  6  feet  in  length,  2  feet 
4  inches  inside  width,  and  3  feet  high.  The  frame  should  be 
constructed  of  2"  X  4"  scantling,   closed  in  front  and  open 


494  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

behind.  Through  the  scantling,  on  either  side  of  the  crate, 
should  be  bored  li"  holes,  so  that  an  inch  iron  bar  may  be 
slipped  behind  the  sow  above  the  hocks  to  prevent  her  from 
backing  out  of  the  crate.  On  the  inside,  on  either  side  of 
the  crate,  2"  X  4"  strips  should  be  fastened,  placing  the  front 
end  about  where  the  sow's  head  comes,  and  then  extending  to 
the  rear  and  bottom.  These  strips  are  for  the  boar's  front  feet 
to  rest  upon,  thus  holding  his  weight  from  the  sow.  When  mat- 
ing a  small  boar  to  a  large  sow,  a  small  platform  may  be  con- 
structed and  placed  in  the  crate  for  the  boar's  hind  feet  to  rest 
upon ;  or  the  sow  may  be  placed  in  a  pit. 

The  pregnant  sow.  —  The  pregnant  sow  may  be  permitted  to 
run  with  the  herd  to  within  two  weeks  of  farrowing  time, 
when  she  should  be  separated  and  given  special  attention.  In 
the  case  of  ill-natured  sows,  they  should  receive  extra  care 
during  the  entire  period  in  order  to  familiarize  them  with  the 
herdsman.  Brood  sows  should  be  trained  much  as  dairy  cows. 
During  the  last  two  weeks  of  pregnancy,  the  sow  will  need 
less  exercise  than  formerty,  but  should  have  the  best  possible 
attention  as  to  feeding.  She  should  be  well  nourished  up  to  a 
few  days  before  farrowing,  when  the  feed  may  be  slightly 
reduced.  Sows  that  are  well  fed  before  and  after  farrowing  are 
less  likely  to  injure  the  pigs,  as  they  will  usually  lie  quiet.  This 
does  not  mean  to  overfeed,  as  this  will  bring  troubles  at  pigging 
time;  but  it  does  mean  that  the  sow  should  not  be  compelled 
to  go  far  afield  to  find  her  food.  If  at  all  possible,  succulence 
of  some  kind  should  be  provided;  in  summer  nothing  is  better 
than  clover  or  alfalfa  pasture,  and  in  winter  roots  may  be  fed 
with  good  results. 

If  the  sow  is  due  to  farrow  in  winter,  the  quarters  should  be 
warm,  comfortable,  well  ventilated,  protected  from  dampness, 
and  so  arranged  that  they  may  have  plenty  of  sunlight.  The 
floor  may  be  of  earth,  but  should  be  dry  and  hard  and  free  from 
dust.     The  sow's  bedding  need  not  be  great  in  quantity,  enough 


THE  BREEDING   OF  SWINE 


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496  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

only  to  provide  a  clean  and  dry  nest.  Sometimes  pigs  are  lost 
when  the  nests  are  too  deep.  If  convenient,  the  nest  should  be 
so  situated  that  the  sun  can  warm  it  during  a  portion  of  the  day. 
Straw,  chaff,  leaves,  or  hay  make  good  nests.  When  at  pasture 
the  sow  will  build  her  own  nest,  in  which  case  she  gathers  grass 
and  leaves  and  provides  a  very  shallow  place.  When  the  sow 
is  to  farrow  in  the  hog-cot  or  pen,  the  little  pigs  may  be  kept 
from  danger  of  being  crushed  by  the  mother  by  a  fender  made  of 
a  pole  or  scantling  securely  fastened,  say  eight  inches  from  the 
floor  and  the  same  distance  from  the  wall.  The  young  pigs 
soon  learn  the  protection  furnished  by  this  device  when  the 
mother  lies  down. 

Farrowing  time.  —  For  several  hours  before  farrowing,  the 
sow  will  be  very  restless  and  spend  much  of  her  time  in  collect- 
ing material  and  making  it  into  a  nest.     At  this  time  the  feed 

should  be  reduced.  The  signs 
that  indicate  the  near  approach 
of  parturition  are  a  distended 
udder,  an  enlarged  vulva,  and  a 
relaxation  of  the  muscles  on 
either  side  of  the  tail.  During 
the  summer  season  the  pigs  will 
of  their  own  accord  usually  find 
their  way  to  the  teats  and  begin 

Fig.  170.  —  Prize  Cheshire  Boar.  .  .         .       , 

nursing ;  but  in  the  winter  season 
the  young  pigs  often  need  assistance  in  finding  the  teats,  other- 
wise they  may  become  chilled  and  perish.  If  for  any  reason  the 
pigs  become  chilled,  they  should  be  treated  similarly  to  that  sug- 
gested for  chilled  lambs  (see  page  414).  Occasionally  a  sow  will 
be  found  that  is  very  nervous  and  unquiet  at  farrowing  time, 
and  it  will  be  necessary  to  keep  the  pigs  from  the  teats  to  prevent 
the  youngsters  from  being  crushed.  When  such  is  the  case 
the  pigs  should  be  kept  warm,  as  suggested  for  lambs. 
When  permitted  to  nurse,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the 


THE  BREEDING    OF  SWINE  497 

young  ones  do  not  overfeed  and  that  each. pig  receives  its  share. 
Extra  attention  should  be  given  the  pigs  at  the  time  they  make 
their  choice  of  teats,  to  see  that  the  weaker  pigs  get  their  share, 
as  they  usually  continue  to  use  the  teats  first  chosen.  The 
stronger  pigs,  however,  are  very  likely  to  take  a  few  pulls  at  the 
teats  of  their  less  robust  mates.  To  reduce  this  difficulty,  each 
sow  and  litter  should  be  placed  in  a  lot  by  themselves. 

Brood  sows,  like  all  other  farm  animals,  often  need  assistance 
at  farrowing  time.  Difficult  parturition  among  sows  should  be 
handled  much  as  suggested  for  difficult  parturition  among  sheep 
(see  page  412).  Feeding  a  heavy  corn  ration  to  the  pregnant 
sow  is  likely  to  increase  the  troubles  at  farrowing  time.  A 
better  plan  is  to  use  food  containing  more  protein  and  mineral 
matter,  as  such  foods  strengthen  the  sow,  while  corn  has  a 
tendency  to  produce  fat  and  thus  to  weaken  her. 

The  brood  sow  eating  her  pigs.  —  The  causes  that  induce  a  sow 
to  eat  her  own  young  are  perhaps  numerous,  though  not  well 
understood.  This  abnormal  appetite  may  be  due  to  the  failure 
to  remove  the  afterbirth  promptly.  If  left  in  the  farrowing  pen, 
the  sow  scents  it  and  is  likely  to  devour  it ;  and  since  the  scent 
of  the  young  pigs  is  similar,  they  too  may  be  eaten.  If  the 
sow  has  not  been  properly  fed  during  pregnancy,  if  the  ration 
lacks  flesh-producing  and  bone-making  material,  she  may  have 
an  appetite  for  blood. 

Sows  that  have  access  to  clover  or  alfalfa  pasture  in  summer, 
or  those  that  are  provided  with  roots  in  winter,  seldom  eat  their 
pigs,  especially  if  a  box  of  charcoal  and  salt  is  kept  before  them 
at  all  times.  When  the  sow  possesses  the  abnormal  appetite, 
it  has  been  recommended  to  feed  her  pork,  preferably  salt  pork. 
The  salt  pork  causes  her  to  drink  water,  which  allays  the  fever. 
The  assertion  is  made  that  when  the  appetite  is  satisfied  she 
will' leave  the  pigs  alone. 

The  sow  after  farrowing.  —  The  sow  is  in  a  feverish  condition 
after  farrowing  and  should  be  provided  with  an  abundance  of 
2k 


498  MANUAL   OF  FABM  ANIMALS 

lukewarm  water.  Never  give  her  ice-cold  water.  In  a  few 
hours  she  will  show  signs  of  wanting  to  eat,  when  she  should  be 
given  a  little  thin  mash  or  gruel  made  from  shorts,  bran,  or  oat- 
meal. This  should  be  given  warm,  in  cold  weather.  For  the 
first  week  the  feed  should  be  light,  consisting  mainly  of  mashes, 
but  no  corn  should  be  given  at  this  time.  Milk-producing  foods, 
such  as  skim-milk,  shorts,  bran,  oat  meal,  and  a  little  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay,  should  be  given,  while  fattening  foods,  such  as  corn, 
are  to  be  avoided. 

Occasionally  the  sow's  udder  is  injured  on  account  of  an 
unusual  development  of  the  pig's  teeth.  This  condition  causes 
the  sow  to  withhold  her  milk,  produces  a  bad  temper,  and 
often  excites  her  to  injure  the  pigs.  When  such  is  the  case,  take 
the  pigs  under  the  arm  and  hold  the  mouth  open  with  one 
hand  while  the  sharp  teeth  are  broken  off  with  small  pincers. 
To  do  this  remove  the  pigs  out  of  hearing  distance  from  the 
sow,  as  she  is  likely  to  object  and  create  a  disturbance. 

THE    PIGS 

The  pig  that  is  safely  born  and  within  a  few  minutes  gets  a 
firm  hold  of  a  teat  full  of  milk,  has  made  a  good  start  in  life. 
Not  all  pigs  are  so  fortunate,  and  many  perish  for  want  of  care 
at  farrowing  time.  When  at  all  convenient,  one  should  be  near 
by  to  give  assistance  if  need  should  arise.  Often  pigs  must  be 
assisted  to  find  the  teat,  especially  in  cold  weather.  Sometimes 
the  sow  is  nervous,  and  the  pigs  should  be  removed  as  farrowed, 
otherwise  she  may  crush  them ;  and  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to 
help  dry  the  pigs  to  keep  them  from  chilling. 

The  first  meal.  —  It  is  important  that  the  young  pig  get  his 
stomach  full  of  the  first  milk  of  the  sow.  This  should  be  accom- 
plished within  a  few  minutes  after  farrowing,  otherwise  the  pig's 
strength  will  rapidly  decrease.  If  for  any  reason  the  sow  has 
no  milk  for  the  pigs  and  it  is  desired  to  raise  them  by  hand,  they 
should  be  given  a  very  small  quantity  of  cow's  milk  warmed  to 


THE  BREEDING    OF  SWINE  499 

body  temperature.  This  may  be  given  from  a  bottle  and  nipple. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  feed  the  little  fellows  too  much 
at  a  time,  but  they  should  be  fed  often,  every  two  hours  for  a 
while,  then  every  three  hours,  then  every  four  hours,  and  later 
they  should  be  fed  four  times  daily.  This  involves  much  work, 
but  is  essential  if  the  pigs  are  to  be  raised,  as  hand-fed  pigs  often 
die  from  overfeeding  following  a  long  period  during  which  they 
received  no  food  whatever. 

Pig  ills.  —  The  young  pig  is  very  subject  to  digestive  dis- 
orders, the  result  of    overfeeding,  underfeeding,  or    otherwise 


i 


Fig.  171.  —  Group  of  English  Small  Yorkshire  or  Small  Whites. 

The  Small  Yorkshire,  or  Small  White,  was  developed  in  England.  This  breed  is 
noted  for  its  fattening  qualities,  not  particularly  early  maturing.  The  breed- 
ing qualities  are  only  fair,  the  sows  medium  in  fecundity.  In  size  the  breed 
is  classed  as  small.     The  color  is  white,  ears  erect,  and  face  greatly  dished. 


improperly  feeding  its  dam.  The  brood  sow  should  be  fed  in 
such  a  way  as  to  encourage  a  good  flow  of  only  medium  rich 
milk.  If  her  food  is  too  rich,  consisting  of  skim-milk,  linseed-oil 
meal,  corn,  and  the  like,  the  pigs  are  likely  to  be  attacked  with 
thumps,  diarrhea,  or  constipation.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
sow  is  underfed,  the  pigs  are  likely  to  suffer.  A  better  plan  is  to 
feed  the  brood  sow  regularly  on  a  ration  consisting  of  moderately 
rich  food,  such  as  mashes  made  from  ground  oats,  shorts,  and  bran. 


500  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

When  the  pigs  are  troubled  with  thumps  or  scours,  cut  down 
on  the  ration  of  the  sow;  and  if  the  pigs  are  valuable,  it  may  be 
well  to  milk  the  sow  at  least  in  part  by  hand,  remembering  that 
the  last  milk  drawn  is  the  richer  in  fat. 

Feeding  the  pigs.  —  At  about  three  weeks  of  age,  the  pigs  are 
likely  to  begin  to  nibble  at  their  mother's  food,  to  bite  at  the 
grass,  and  perhaps  try  to  root.  This  indicates  that  they  are 
acquiring  an  appetite,  and  they  should  be  encouraged  to  take 
food  other  than  that  supplied  by  the  mother.  Place  a  small 
trough  in  one  corner  of  the  lot  or  pen,  and  arrange  a  fence  across 
the  corner  so  the  old  sows  cannot  have  access  to  it,  but  the  young 
pigs  can.  Into  this  trough  a  little  sweet  milk  may  be  poured 
three  times  daily.  Do  not  provide  more  than  the  pigs  will 
drink  at  once,  and  never  leave  the  milk  to  sour  in  the  trough,  as 
digestive  disorders  and  death  are  sure  to  follow.  In  a  few  days 
replace  the  milk  with  a  small  amount  of  bran  and  shorts,  scalded 
and  made  into  a  gruel.  Later  corn  soaked  for  24  hours  may  be 
placed  in  the  trough.  For  best  results  the  young  pigs  should  be 
fed  a  variety.  Whatever  food-stuffs  are  used,  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  feed  more  than  they  will  clean  up.  Pigs  fed  in  this  way 
will  make  a  much  more  rapid  growth  than  if  the  extra  trough 
had  not  been  provided. 

Weaning  the  pigs.  —  With  pigs  fed  as  suggested  above,  the 
weaning  process  is  easy  and  simple.  As  the  pigs  learn  to  rely 
more  on  the  extra  food,  the  mother's  milk-producing  food  should 
be  cut  down  so  that  she  will  not  be  in  the  height  of  her  flow  when 
the  pigs  are  taken  away.  The  age  to  wean  pigs  varies :  with  the 
youngsters  that  have  made  a  rapid  growth  they  should  be 
weaned  at  about  eight  weeks  of  age;  or  in  case  the  pigs  and 
mother  are  not  doing  well,  it  may  be  wise  to  wean  at  a  much 
younger  age  even  though  the  pigs  are  small.  As  a  general  rule, 
it  is  safer  to  say  the  best  age  for  weaning  is  between  seven  and 
ten  weeks.  Some  advise  turning  out  the  most  thrifty  pigs  first, 
leaving  the  weaker  ones  to  nurse  a  few  days  longer,  the  state- 


THE  BREEDING   OF  SWINE  501 

ment  being  made  that  in  this  way  there  is  no  danger  of  the 
sow's  udder  spoiling,  as  the  weaker  ones  will  take  the  milk. 
This  practice  is  of  doubtful  merit ;  it  is  perhaps  best  to  take  the 
sows  entirely  away  from  the  pigs,  thus  leaving  the  youngsters 
in  their  own  pen.  If  the  sows  have  previously  had  their  food 
reduced  as  suggested  and  the  pigs  are  fed  extra,  this  will  surely 
give  best  results. 

Castrating  the  pigs.  —  The*  boar  pigs  not  desired  for  breed- 
ing purposes  should  be  castrated.  This  should  be  done  rather 
early  in  order  that  the  pigs  may  recover  from  the  resulting  sore- 
ness before  weaning,  say  from  three  to  six  weeks  of  age. 
At  this  age,  the  operation  is  very  simple.  Have  an  assist- 
ant hold  the  pig  by  the  hind  legs,  placing  the  pig's  back  against 
the  assistant's  breast,  and  holding  the  hind  legs  apart  in  such  a 
way  as  to  expose  the  scrotum.  Simply  slit  the  "end  of  the  scro- 
tum and  remove  the  testicles  by  pulling  them  out ;  smear  a  mix- 
ture of  fresh  lard  and  turpentine  half  and  half  on  the  scrotum, 
and  let  the  pig  go.  With  ridglings  and  hernia  there  is  more  dan- 
ger and  more  care  should  be  used.  A  ridgling  is  an  animal  in 
which  one  or  both  testicles  have  not  descended  into  the  scrotum. 

Marking  pigs.  —  When  one  is  breeding  pure-bred  animals, 
some  system  of  identification  is  necessary,  as  even  an  expert 
cannot  identify  pigs  when  they  are  reared  in  large  droves. 
The  method  suggested  in  Fig.  172  is  very  good. 

Pigs  after  weaning.  —  Many  pigs  are  stunted  for  want  of 
proper  care  the  first  month  after  weaning.  If  in  summer,  they 
are  frequently  turned  out  to  hot  dry  pasture  to  forage  for  them- 
selves ;  or  if  in  winter,  they  are  placed  in  close,  dark,  cold  and 
muddy  quarters,  and  they  are  likely  to  fail  to  develop.  An- 
imals thus  treated,  of  course  do  not  make  satisfactory  gain. 
For  best  results,  if  in  summer,  the  pigs  just  weaned  should 
be  provided  with  shade,  a  clean  mud  wallow,  and  receive  grain  in 
addition  to  the  pasture ;  if  in  winter,  dry,  well  lighted,  well 
ventilated,  and  protected  quarters  should  be  provided,  and  if  at 


502 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


200 


100 


all  possible  the  animals  should  receive  succulent  food  in  the 
shape  of  roots  in  addition  to  the  grain,  which  grain  should 
not  consist  entirely  of  corn. 

The  breeding  hogs  and  the  fat  hogs  may  run  together  until 

three  months  of  age, 
when  the  breeding  ani- 
mals should  be  taken 
out.  At  this  age  the 
sows  will  begin  to  show 
up,  so  that  those  likely 
to  make  the  best  an- 
imals may  be  chosen 
for  breeding.  If  later 
on  some  of  the  sows  not 
chosen  should  show  good 
form,  they  too  may  be 
taken  out  of  the  fat 
herd.  Those  animals 
chosen  for  breeding 
should  be  fed  a  nitrog- 
enous ration.  In  addi- 
tion, they  should  be  permitted  to  take  abundance  of  exercise. 
If  they  are  confined  too  closely  and  fed  a  fattening  ration,  their 
breeding  powers  are  likely  to  be  weakened. 


Fig.  172.  —  Method  of  marking  Pigs  for 
Future  Identification,  or  until  Perma- 
nent Tags  can  be  inserted  into  the  Ear. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT 

Aside  from  the  various  practical  points  on  care  and  manage- 
ment discussed  in  the  chapters  on  feeding  and  breeding,  special 
attention  is  now  given  to  sanitation  and  equipment.  Many  of 
the  common  diseases  that  often  prove  so  very  fatal  to  swine  are 
due  entirely  or  in  a  large  measure  to  carelessness  or  indifference 
in  management.  It  is  well  known  to  swine  breeders  that  few 
hogs  are  free  from  lice.  These  vermin  are  blood  suckers,  and 
in  a  very  short  time  they  produce  a  weakened  condition  of  the 
animal,  thereby  rendering  it  far  more  susceptible  to  other  dis- 
eases; even  cholera  is  more  virulent  and  more  deadly  when  the 
herd  is  infested  with  lice. 

DIPPING   SWINE 

To  free  the  hogs  from  lice  or  other  vermin,  all  newly  ac- 
quired hogs  should  be  dipped  immediately  upon  arriving  at 
the  farm  in  much  the  same  way  as  suggested  for  sheep  (see 
page  423).  The  hogs  should  not  be  permitted  to  infect  the 
quarters  or  lots  before  dipping.  The  same  dipping-vat  as  that 
suggested  for  sheep  may  be  used,  as  well  as  the  same  coal-tar 
preparation,  although  the  solutions  may  be  used  somewhat 
weaker  for  swine.  All  stock  hogs  should  be  dipped  at  least 
twice  each  year,  or  whenever  they  become  infested  with  lice 
(Fig.  173). 

Good  results  are  reported  from  the  use  of  a  self-dipping  device. 
This  device  consists  of  a  shallow  vat  about  ten  inches  deep  and 
eight  to  ten  feet  square.     It  is  built  of  two-inch  plank  and  placed 

503 


504 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


near  by  or  convenient  to  the  well  or  large  water-tank.  The  vat 
is  filled  about  three-fourths  full  of  water  and  one  quart  of  dip 
added.  The  dip  is  renewed  about  once  in  two  weeks  and  the 
water  supplied  as  needed.  During  the  muddy  season  the  tank 
should  be  cleaned  and  a  fresh  start  made.  The  liquid  may  be 
removed  in  a  few  minutes  with  a  scoop  shovel.     The  hogs 


Fig.  173.  —  Hog-dipping  Equipment.     Dipping- vat  set  in  ground. 

wallow  in  this  at  will,  and  they  do  not  seem  to  mind  the  dip ; 
when  the  water  is  fresh  they  often  drink  small  quantities  of  the 
liquid.  This  keeps  the  hogs  free  from  lice  and  skin  diseases 
and  helps  to  keep  down  worms,  cholera,  and  other  swine  plagues. 


SHELTER    FOR    SWINE 

Some  one  has  fittingly  said,  "The  hog  does  not  need  a  palace 
or  an  upholstered  cage,  nor  does  he  prosper  in  a  dungeon." 
Occasionally  much  money  is  uselessly  expended  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  large  and  expensive  building  which  is  in  use  only  a 
part  of  the  year ;  more  often,  however,  swine  are  housed  in  a  hole 
in  the  straw  stack  or  in  a  shed  constructed  from  fence  rails  or 
poles  and  covered  with  straw  or  fodder.     Such  places  are  dun- 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  505 

geons.  There  is  no  ventilation,  they  are  dark  and  damp  in 
wet  weather,  and  soon  become  filthy  dens  of  infection. 

As  with  the  barn  for  other  farm  animals,  the  hog  barn  should 
be  well  ventilated,  well  lighted,  well  drained,  and  dry,  serviceable, 
and  sanitary.  Any  structure  that  answers  these  conditions  will 
prove  fairly  satisfactory.  Convenience  and  adaptability  should 
be  considered  in  constructing  the  hog-house.  In  general, 
hog-houses  are  of  two  types :  large  houses,  or  those  accommo- 
dating a  considerable  number  of  hogs ;  and  small  individual 
houses  or  cots. 

The  large  hog-house.  —  There  are  almost  as  many  types  of 
large  hog-houses  as  there  are  swine  breeders  or  feeders  who  have 
built  them,  each  having  its  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
When  properly  constructed,  the  large  hog-house  is  serviceable, 
sanitary,  and  convenient ;  but,  if  properly  constructed,  they 
are  expensive,  especially  since  they  are  only  used  a  part  of  the 
year.  It  is  difficult  to  locate  them  accessibly  to  the  pastures, 
particularly  in  case  sown  pastures  are  used,  as  they  are  likely  to 
be  on  various  parts  of  the  farm.  Furthermore,  when  many  sows 
are  housed  in  close  proximity  to  each  other,  if  one  is  disturbed  or 
molested  in  any  way,  all  the  others  are  likely  to  become  fretful ; 
and  when  feeding  is  begun  in  one  part  of  the  house  the  other 
animals  become  uneasy  and  often  injure  their  litters. 

The  individual  hog-house.  —  Of  late  years  the  small  individual 
hog-house  has  become  very  common.  These  small  houses  are 
constructed  on  runners  so  they  can  be  moved  from  one  field 
or  lot  to  another.  They  are  well  adapted  to  accommodate  a 
sow  and  her  litter,  and  a  few  of  these  "cots,"  as  they  are  often 
called,  set  side  by  side  afford  excellent  shelter  for  a  drove  of  hogs. 
The  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  has  issued  a 
bulletin  devoted  chiefly  to  the  construction  of  these  small  houses, 
and  from  which  we  quote:  "The  portable  hog-house  is 
easily  and  economically  constructed;  it  can  be  easily  moved 
and  located  wherever  desired ;  it  is  useful  to  the  general  farmer 


506  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  to  the  breeder  of  pure-bred  stock ;  and  of  all  systems  of 
housing  swine  it  is  the  most  natural  and  sanitary.  Only  the 
simplest  workmanship  is  necessary  to  build  the  portable  house, 
and  much  old  lumber  can  be  worked  into  it. 

"The  portable  house  is  peculiarly  advantageous,  since  it  can 
be  readily  moved.  The  renter  who  finds  it  impossible  to  pro- 
vide expensive  quarters  for  his  hogs  can  well  afford  to  construct 
portable  houses,  which  can  be  retained  as  personal  property. 
It  is  useful  on  any  sized  farm  as  the  number  can  be  regulated  to 
the  size  of  the  herd.  With  separate  paddocks  to  accommodate 
swine  of  different  ages  and  sexes  the  portable  house  is  practically 
a  necessity.  Swine  will  never  pile  up  in  a  damp,  poorly  venti- 
lated quarter  and  come  out  steaming  in  the  cold  morning  air, 
unless  compelled  to  do  so.  Where  a  large  number  of  animals 
are  continually  housed  in  one  hog-house,  the  surroundings  are 
sure  to  become  more  or  less  filthy  and  unsanitary.  If  feeding 
is  done  on  the  inside,  it  keeps  a  portion  of  the  floor  wet,  and  gives 
the  entire  building  an  offensive  disagreeable  appearance.  On 
the  other  hand,  by  using  the  portable  house,  moving  it  occa- 
sionally to  a  fresh  piece  of  ground,  and  feeding  the  hogs  at  dif- 
ferent places,  one  avoids  those  unsanitary  conditions.  These 
portable  houses  can  be  built  to  accommodate  from  four  to  six 
mature  animals  or  ten  to  twenty  shotes.  This  method  of 
housing  keeps  them  much  cleaner  and  more  thrifty  than  when 
allowed  to  congregate  in  large  numbers,  and  individuals  of  a 
herd  showing  evidence  of  a  contagious  disease  can  be  readily 
isolated." 

The  A-shaped  individual  hog-house.  —  These  portable  houses 
are  usually  constructed  of  two  types,  the  A-shaped  and  the  shed- 
roof-shaped.  A  convenient  size  for  the  A-shaped  house  is  eight 
feet  square  and  seven  feet  high.  It  may  be  constructed  with  or 
without  a  wood  floor,  as  desired.  If  one  has  paved  or  very  dry 
lots  where  the  cots  are  to  remain  in  winter,  perhaps  they  will  give 
better  satisfaction  without  the  wood  floor.     On  the  other  hand, 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT 


507 


if  the  lots  where  they  are  kept  for  winter  use  are  muddy,  a  wood 
floor  should  be  provided.  A  ventilator  should  be  provided, 
which  may  be  made  by 
sawing  off  the  ends  of 
two  roof  boards  and  cov- 
ering the  hole  thus  formed 
with  a  V-shaped  hood 
(Fig.  174).  In  order  to 
provide  light  a  window- 
glass  ought  to  be  placed  in 
the  front  above  the  door 
and  a  second  in  the  rear. 
A  door  two  feet  wide  and 
two  feet  and  six  inches 
high   Should  be  provided     Fig.  174.- A-Shaped  Individual  Hog-house. 

at  one  end.  The  door  itself  may  be  suspended  by  a  rope  and 
arranged  to  slide  up  and  down  as  it  will  need  to  be  used  only  in 
very  cold  weather.  For  summer  use  a  gunny  sack  may  be 
hung  over  the  door,  as  this  will  serve  to  brush  the  flies  off  as 
the  hog  enters  and  to  keep  the  cot  cool.  To  facilitate  moving 
from  lot  to  lot,  the  structures  should  be  placed  on  runners.  If 
brood  sows  are  due  to  farrow  in  very  cold  weather,  these  cots 
can  be  made  very  comfortable  by  standing  fodder  or  placing 
straw  about  them. 

The  shed-shaped  individual  hog-house. — In  Fig.  175  is  shown  the 
front  elevation  of  a  shed-roof  hog-house  eight  feet  wide,  twelve 
feet  long,  and  seven  feet  high  in  front  and  three  behind,  which 
is  sometimes  preferred  to  the  A-shaped  house.  It  is  provided 
with  doors  in  the  rear,  the  same  size  as  the  lower  front  doors, 
and  placed  diagonally  opposite,  so  that  by  opening  all  the  doors 
it  makes  a  cool  house  in  summer.  On  the  other  hand,  by  closing 
the  lower  doors  and  opening  the  upper  doors,  for  ventilation,  it 
makes  a  warm  house  for  cold  winter  weather.  The  upper  front 
doors  are  arranged  with  wooden  ratchets  on  the  back   side, 


508 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


which  holds  them  in  any  desired  position.  By  having  the  hinges 
on  the  top,  the  storm  and  hot  sun  cannot  enter  and  yet  by  ad- 
justing the  opening,  air  may  circulate  freely  without  causing  a 
draft  on  the  animals.  These  top  doors  are  very  important.  It 
is  a  serious  mistake  to  build  these  houses  with  but  one  opening, 
as  is  sometimes  done.  There  is  no  ventilation  whatever,  and 
the  house  in  warm  weather  becomes  a  suffocating  quarter. 


Fig.  175.  —  Shed-shaped  Individual  Hog-house,  with  Shade  Attached. 

The  illustration  of  the  shed-roof  portable  hog-house  shows  a 
shade  at  the  rear  under  which  the  pigs  can  lie  in  comfort.  This 
shade  is  five  feet  wide,  made  of  inch  boards  placed  upon  remov- 
able supports  which  rest  on  cleats  nailed  to  the  ends  of  the 
house  (Fig.  175). 

Disadvantages  and  advantages.  —  The  individual  hog-house  has 
the  disadvantage  of  requiring  more  labor  to  feed  and  care  for 
the  herd.  With  each  sow  and  litter  in  a  pen  or  cot  by  them- 
selves it  takes  considerable  time  to  make  the  rounds,  and  this 
must  often  be  done  in  the  storm.  Furthermore,  vicious  sows  are 
more  difficult  to  attend,  and  the  feeder  is  often  obliged  to  enter 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  509 

the  cot  to  arrange  the  bedding  and  clean  the  quarters.  These 
small  houses,  however,  are  very  inexpensive  and  very  efficient, 
and  all  things  considered,  answer  the  general  farmer's  conditions 
much  better  than  the  large  and  expensive  hog-house. 

THE    HOG    LOT 

The  lot  in  which  hogs  are  quartered  should  be  such  as  can  be 
kept  clean.  A  filthy  and  carelessly  kept  lot  encourages  disease 
by  providing  lodgment  for  the  germs ;  and  constant  cleanliness 
is  the  most  effective  means  of  preventing  germ  dissemination. 
Where  disease  germs  have  once  been  established,  an  absolutely 
thorough  disinfection  is  essential  to  eradicate  them.  To  facilitate 
cleanliness  and  disinfection,  at  least  a  part  of  the  lot  should  be 
paved  with  brick,  stone,  or  concrete.  On  this  pavement  the  cots 
may  be  placed  during  the  winter  season  and  on  it  the  feeding 
may  be  done. 

Hog-wallows.  —  Some  very  successful  breeders  heartily  favor 
hog-wallows,  while  others  equally  as  successful  are  much 
opposed  to  their  use.  Those  who  are  outspoken  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  wallow  have  perhaps  been  influenced  from 
infections  due  to  a  filthy  wallow,  or  from  infections  at  the  time 
of  an  outbreak  of  cholera.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  filthy 
wallows  are  often  a  source  of  danger,  nor  can  there  be  any  doubt 
that  once  a  cholera  hog  wallows  in  the  water,  however  clean,  all 
other  hogs  wallowing  in  or  drinking  this  contaminated  water 
are  likely  to  contract  the  dreaded  disease. 

On  the  other  hand,  with  the  healthy  herd  there  can  be  no  ob- 
jections to  a  clean  mud  wallow,  and  there  are  many  advantages 
to  be  derived  from  it.  During  the  heat  of  summer  the  hog 
cools  mainly  by  radiation,  and  a  cool  mud  bath  is  very  soothing ; 
it  cleans  the  scurf  from  the  skin  and  enables  the  hog  to  find 
protection  from  the  flies.  This  wallow  or  mud  bath  should  be  so 
arranged  that  fresh  water  may  be  added  as  needed,  and  to  insure 
absolute  freedom  from  all  germ  life  a  quart  of  coal-tar  dip  may  be 
poured  in  the  wallow  occasionally  (see  also  page  504). 


CHAPTER  XXV 
DISEASES   OF   SWINE 

While  swine  are  not  ordinarily  considered  as  being  subject 
to  so  great  a  variety  of  diseases  as  horses,  cattle,  or  sheep,  they 
are  very  often  attacked  by  ailments  far  more  serious  than  afflict 
any  other  class  of  our  farm  animals.  Chief  of  these  diseases  are 
cholera,  swine  plague,  and  tuberculosis.  Throughout  the  corn- 
belt  of  the  United  States,  the  loss  caused  by  these  diseases  among 
swine  is  not  equaled  by  any  other  class  of  diseases  to  which 
farm  animals  are  subject.  These  very  deadly  diseases  are  all 
contagious  or  infectious  and  therefore,  with  proper  sanitary 
methods,  can  be  prevented,  although  when  the  animal  once 
becomes  afflicted,  there  is  no  cure.  It  is  the  ravages  caused 
by  these  diseases  that  makes  pork  production  such  a  hazardous 
business.  Sometimes  the  swine  breeder  or  feeder  will  have  a 
drove  of  swine  ready  for  the  market  when  they  will  contract 
one  of  these  diseases  and  the  entire  herd  be  taken  in  a  few 
weeks. 

Quarantine  lot.  —  On  every  farm  where  hogs  are  kept  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  a  small  quarantine  lot  should  be  provided. 
This  lot  should  be  located  at  some  distance  from  the  other  lots,it 
should  be  tightly  fenced  and  at  least  a  part  of  it  should  be  paved. 
When  a  new  animal  arrives,  it  maybe  dipped  as  suggested  (page 
503)  and  then  placed  in  this  quarantine  pen  for  at  least  three 
weeks.  Cholera  or  any  other  diseases  will  be  apparent  before 
this.  If  all  is  well,  it  may  then  be  turned  with  the  herd. 
Such  a  pen  could  be  used  by  any  of  the  animals  of  the  herd 
that  may  become  sick,  as  all  ailing  hogs  should  at  once  be 

510 


DISEASES   OF  SWINE  511 

separated  until  the  nature  of  the  disease  is  determined.  Such 
a  lot  set  apart  for  this  purpose  may  prevent  outbreaks  of  very 
serious  diseases. 

HOG    CHOLERA 

Hog  cholera  is  an  infectious  disease  of  swine.  It  exists  in  all 
sections  of  the  United  States,  but  is  particularly  prevalent 
in  the  corn-belt.  In  that  section  it  is  the  most  dreaded 
disease  to  which  swine  are  subject.  Not  so  many  animals 
are  condemned  at  the  large  packing  houses  because  of  this 
disease,  as  of  tuberculosis,  but  this  is  due  to  the  nature  of  the  dis- 
ease. With  cholera  the  hogs  die  or  recover  quickly,  while  with 
tuberculosis  they  may  linger  for  months.  Cholera  varies  in  its 
virulence ;  sometimes  comparatively  few  hogs  that  have  it  will 
die,  while  at  other  times  nearly  every  animal  in  the  entire  herd 
will  succumb  to  the  disease.  When  the  disease  once  appears,  it 
spreads  very  rapidly,  not  only  among  the  animals  of  a  herd,  but 
across  the  country  from  one  farm  to  another. 

Manner  of  spreading  the  disease.  —  Cholera  is  a  germ  disease 
and  may  be  spread  in  many  ways.  These  germs  are  very  hardy 
and  vigorous.  They  are  able  to  live  for  a  long  time  in  the 
water  of  ponds  and  streams ;  they  may  live  in  the  soil  for  at 
least  three  months  and  in  accumulations  of  straw  and  litter  for  a 
much  longer  time.  The  hog,  taking  in  these  germs  either  by  in- 
haling with  the  breath  or  by  ingestion  with  the  food,  is  likely 
to  contract  the  disease.  Only  the  very  smallest  particle  is 
necessary  to  convey  the  germ.  Thus,  an  attendant  passing 
from  a  lot  of  infected  hogs  to  a  lot  of  healthy  ones  may  carry 
the  infection  on  his  shoes;  dogs,  chickens,  pigeons,  and  even 
birds  are  known  to  have  carried  the  germs.  The  wind 
blowing  particles  of  dust  from  place  to  place  will  also  carry  with 
it  sufficient  of  these  germs  to  produce  the  disease.  A  cholera 
hog  having  access  to  a  stream  may  contaminate  the  water 
sufficiently  to  infect  animals  miles  below. 


512  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Prevention  of  the  disease.  — Up  to  the  present  time,  there  has  not 
been  discovered  any  means  by  which  hog  cholera  can  be  cured, 
the  only  safeguard  being  prevention.  All  that  is  necessary  to 
prevent  the  disease  is  to  keep  the  germs  of  the  disease  away 
from  the  herd.  In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  the  germ 
is  transported  mechanically,  in  the  bodies  of  sick  hogs  and 
on  the  feet  of  men  or  animals,  including  birds.  It  follows, 
therefore,  that  the  chances  of  an  outbreak  of  hog  cholera  will  be 
greatly  lessened,  if  not  completely  avoided,  if  the  herd  is  pro- 
tected from  these  sources  of  infection.  To  do  this  the  herd 
should  be  placed  on  a  part  of  the  farm  that  will  be  least  accessible 
to  men  or  animals  from  other  farms.  The  hogs  should  be  con- 
fined to  a  dry  lot  free  from  running  water  or  wallows,  unless  one  is 
constructed  as  suggested  on  page  509,  and  the  disinfectant  added 
every  two  weeks.  Careful  attention  should  be  given  the  feed 
and  water.  The  hogs  should  be  provided  with  shade  and  clean 
dry  sleeping  places. 

If  at  any  time  any  of  the  animals  show  signs  of  sickness,  they 
should  be  separated  from  the  healthy  ones.  Air-slaked  lime 
should  be  scattered  about  the  lot,  and  the  feed  troughs  thoroughly 
disinfected  or  replaced  by  new  ones.  For  a  condition  powder 
prepare  the  following  :  — 

Wood  charcoal 1  lb. 

Sulfur      . 1  lb. 

Sodium  chloride 2  lb. 

Sodium  bicarbonate       2  lb. 

Sodium  hyposulfate 2  lb. 

Sodium  sulfate 1  lb. 

Antimony  sulfite 1  lb. 

Completely  pulverize  and  thoroughly  mix.  This  powder  is 
mixed  with  the  feed  in  the  proportion  of  a  large  tablespoonful 
to  each  200  pounds  weight  of  hogs,  and  given  once  a  day.  When 
hogs  are  suspected  to  be  affected  with  cholera,  they  should  not 
be  fed  on  corn  alone,  but  have,  at  least  once  a  day,  soft  feed  made 
by  mixing  bran  and  middlings,  or  middlings  and  corn  meal,  or 


DISEASES   OF  SWINE  513 

ground  oats  and  corn,  or  crushed  wheat,  and  then  stirring  into 
this  the  proper  quantity  of  the  medicine. 

After  an  outbreak  of  cholera  the  yards  and  pens  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned,  all  dead  hogs  should  be  burned,  the  litter  should 
be  collected  and  burned,  and  quicklime  scattered  freely  over  the 
ground.  The  houses  should  be  washed  thoroughly  with  a  coal- 
tar  preparation  before  new  stock  is  brought  in.  The  troughs 
should  be  burned,  or  if  this  is  not  practicable,  they  should  be 
thoroughly  soaked  in  coal-tar  preparation  and  then  washed  out. 
The  lots  and  houses  should  not  be  used  again  for  some  time. 

Prevention  of  cholera  by  immunization.  —  The  Bureau  of  Ani- 
mal Industry,  Department  of  Agriculture,  has  developed  a  serum 
which  by  means  of  vaccination  will  render  hogs  immune  to  chol- 
era. While  its  preparation  and  use  are  attended  with  difficul- 
ties, the  method  is  briefly  given  here  because  of  the  feeling  that 
if  it  is  to  prove  practicable,  it  must  be  so  simplified  as  to  be  used 
by  any  careful  workman.  Furthermore,  a  drove  of  cholera  hogs 
affords  a  very  good  opportunity  to  practice,  as  their  value  is  not 
likely  to  be  great,  especially  if  the  attack  is  virulent. 

In  order  to  make  the  method  clear  it  will  be  divided  into  two 
main  parts:  the  preparation  of  the  serum,  and  the  use  of  the 
serum. 

Preparation  of  the  serum.  —  To  prepare  the  serum  one  must 
first  procure  an  immune  hog  with  a  long  heavy  tail,  since  it  is 
at  this  point  that  the  serum  is  drawn,  and  it  may  be  necessary 
to  clip  the  end  two  or  three  times  in  drawing  the  serum.  This 
may  be  a  hog  that  has  recovered  from  an  attack  of  cholera, 
as  such  animals  are  immune  to  further  attacks,  or  it  may  be 
one  rendered  immune  by  the  method  herein  described.  This 
hog  we  will  call  the  supply  animal.  This. animal  must  now  be 
hyper-immunized.  This  consists  of  inoculating  him,  in  the  mus- 
cles of  the  thigh,  with  about  10  c.c.  (cubic  centimeters)  of 
virulent  hog  cholera  blood,  from  which  the  clot  has  been  re- 
moved by  stirring  or  whipping  with  a  clean  stick,  to  the  pound 
2l 


514  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

live  weight  of  hog.     Thus  a  100-pound  hog  should  receive  1000 
c.c.  of  virulent  blood  taken  from  a  hog  sick  with  cholera. 

This  virulent  blood  may  be  obtained  by  allowing  the  cholera 
hog  to  bleed  to  death,  taking  care  to  collect  the  blood  free  from 
particles  of  dirt;  or  it  maybe  obtained  by  clipping  the  end  of  the 
tail  and  allowing  it  to  flow  slowly  into  a  jar  well  protected  from 
dirt.  If  the  tail  stops  bleeding,  thump  it  or  cut  the  end  again. 
After  collecting  the  blood,  gently  stir  it  with  a  clean  stick,  or 
better  still  a  glass  rod  to  remove  the  clot.  The  clot  will  collect 
on  the  rod  while  stirring.  This  diseased  blood  from  which  the 
clot  has  been  removed  is  now  ready  to  inject  into  the  muscles  of 
the  supply  hog.  This  is  done  with  a  hypodermic  syringe  and 
inoculated  into  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh  after  placing  the  pig 
on  his  back.  There  are  two  methods  of  inoculating,  —  the 
slow  method,  and  the  quick  method.  By  the  slow  method,  in- 
creasing amounts  of  virulent  blood  are  injected  at  regular  inter- 
vals, which  requires  so  much  time  that  it  is  seldom  used.  By  the 
quick  method,  the  virulent  blood  is  all  injected  at  one  time. 
After  the  injection  of  this  blood,  the  supply  animal  is  said  to 
be  hyper-immunized. 

One  week  after  the  injection  of  the  virulent  blood  into  the 
supply  animal,  the  hog  is  ready  to  have  his  blood  drawn  for 
the  purpose  of  protecting  hogs  from  cholera.  This  blood  may 
be  drawn  in  two  ways :  the  supply  animal  may  be  killed  and  the 
entire  supply  of  blood  taken  at  once,  or  he  maybe  bled  at  the  tail. 
The  tail  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  disinfected,  and  then  the 
end  is  cut  off  and  the  blood  caught  in  a  clean  jar.  Much  care 
should  be  used  to  keep  everything  clean  and  free  from  germ-laden 
dirt.  In  this  way,  500  c.c.  of  blood  may  be  drawn  at  one  time. 
This  may  be  repeated  three  times  at  intervals  of  one  week,  after 
which  the  blood  gradually  loses  its  protective  properties  and 
should  not  be  used. 

The  blood  thus  collected  is  allowed  to  clot,  after  which  it  is 
filtered  through  sterilized  gauze  in  order  to  get  the  serum  or  the 


DISEASES   OF  SWINE 


515 


liquid  part  of  the  blood  separated  from  the  clot.  Then  add  suffi- 
cient carbolic  acid  to  make  a  one-half  per  cent  solution;  that  is, 
if  there  is  500  c.c.  of  the  serum,  add  2  V£  c.c.  of  carbolic  acid. 

Use  of  the  serum.  —  There  are  two  methods  of  using  the 
serum  for  the  prevention  of  hog  cholera:  the  serum-alone 
method,   in   which  the  serum  only  is  used;    and    the  serum- 


Fig.  176.  —  First  Prize  Tamworth  Sow  at  Illinois  Fair. 

The  Tamworth  breed  of  swine  is  a  native  of  England.  This  breed  is  similar  to 
the  Large  Yorkshire  and  is  noted  for  bacon  production.  The  quality  of  pork 
is  unexceled,  although  the  animals  are  rather  late  maturing.  The  breeding 
qualities  are  excellent,  the  sows  being  very  prolific.  The  breed  is  classed  as 
large.  The  color  is  red  or  sandy,  the  ears  almost  erect  and  the  face  long  and 
straight. 


siinultaneous  method,  in  which  the  serum  and  virulent  blood 
from  a  hog  infected  with  cholera  are  used. 

Serum-alone  method.  —  With  the  hypodermic  syringe,  inject 
into  the  arm  and  thigh  pits  20  c.c.  of  serum  for  each  100  pounds 
weight  of  pig.    That  is,  if  the  pig  weighs  50  pounds,  inject  10  c.c. 


516  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

of  the  serum,  whereas  if  the  pig  weighs  150  pounds,  inject 
30  c.c.  of  serum.  This  method  gives  immediate  h>ut  tempo- 
rary immunity  lasting  perhaps  four  or  five  weeks,  possibly 
longer.  It  is  recommended  for  use  in  herds  where  cholera 
already  exists,  but  to  be  used  on  seemingly  healthy  pigs  only. 
Pigs  already  sick  will  probably  not  benefit  by  its  use, 
although  if  the  animals  should  be  infected  with  the  disease 
germ  immediately  after  the  serum  is  injected,  the  immunity 
will  last  much  longer  than  otherwise.  There  is  no  danger 
attending  this  method. 

Serum-simultaneous  method. — With  the  hypodermic  syringe, 
inject  simultaneously  into  the  arm  and  thigh  pits  20  c.c.  of 
serum  and  1  c.c.  of  virulent  hog  cholera  blood  for  each  100  pounds 
weight  of  pig.  The  virulent  blood  must  be  obtained  from  a  hog 
sick  with  cholera  and  the  clot  removed.  Pigs  treated  by  this 
method  are  immune  for  six  months  to  one  year.  This  is  the 
method  usually  employed,  but  is  attended  with  greater  danger 
than  the  serum-alone  method ;  however,  the  resulting  immunity 
is  much  longer. 

Objections  to  the  serum  method.  —  There  are  two  objections  to 
this  method  of  vaccinating  hogs  to  protect  them  against  cholera : 
it  is  expensive  and  somewhat  dangerous.  It  is  expensive  because 
a  125-pound  hog  will  furnish  a  comparatively  small  amount 
of  blood,  perhaps  500  c.c.  at  each  four  bleedings  and  1000  c.c. 
more  at  death,  making  a  total  of  only  3000  c.c,  from  which 
the  clot  must  be  taken.  Furthermore,  this  animal  must  be  ren- 
dered hyper-immune,  which  involves  much  labor  and  expense. 
The  process  of  immunization  is  dangerous  because  it  requires 
the  use  of  the  virulent  hog  cholera  blood  containing  the  living  hog 
cholera  germ.  When  this  is  used  without  the  protective  serum, 
an  outbreak  of  hog  cholera  is  immediately  started.  With  proper 
precautions,  an  attendant  that  takes  an  interest  in  the  method 
can  prevent  serious  outbreaks  of  hog  cholera  and  thus  reduce  the 
risk  in  pork  production. 


DISEASES   OF  SWINE  517 

SWINE    PLAGUE 

Swine  plague  is  an  infectious  germ  disease  of  swine.  It  is 
frequently  associated  with  hog  cholera,  which  it  resembles.  In 
fact,  the  two  diseases  resemble  each  other  so  very  closely  that  it 
often  requires  a  post  mortem  examination  by  an  expert  to  dis- 
tinguish between  them.  From  this  it  follows  that  the  manner 
of  spreading  the  disease  as  well  as  its  prevention  are  practically 
the  same  as  in  the  case  of  hog  cholera.  While  these  two  diseases 
cause  untold  loss  among  swine,  it  must  be  remembered  that  by 
proper  sanitary  methods  they  can  be  practically  prevented. 
This  calls  for  better  treatment  than  is  ordinarily  given  swine. 
Well-lighted,  comfortable  quarters;  clean,  dry  lots  free  from 
filthy  wallows,  but  provided  with  a  self-dipping  device  ;  a  liberal 
use  of  disinfectants  in  the  houses  and  of  air-slaked  lime  in  the 
lots,  will  go  a  long  way  towards  reducing  the  ravages  of  these 
two  diseases  to  a  minimum. 

TUBERCULOSIS 

Tuberculosis  is  most  prevalent  among  swine  in  those  sections 
where  cattle  are  most  affected.  Great  numbers  of  hogs  are 
condemned  by  the  large  packing-houses  because  of  this  disease, 
more  than  from  all  other  diseases  combined,  and  the  percentage 
is  increasing  year  by  year  until  at  present  it  is  thought  that  about 
three  per  cent  are  being  thrown  out. 

Manner  of  spreading  the  disease.  —  The  tubercular  germ  gains 
entrance  to  the  bodies  of  various  animals  in  different  ways. 
Thus  in  the  case  of  man  and  also  cattle,  the  germ  may  be  either 
inhaled  or  taken  in  with  the  food,  while  in  the  case  of  swine  the 
germ  gains  entrance  by  the  food  alone.  It  is  very  seldom  that 
the  disease  starts  by  the  germs  being  inhaled.  This  being  true, 
the  disease  should  be  very  easily  controlled  in  swine.  The  chief 
sources  of  infection  among  swine  are  the  skim-milk  from  a  tuber- 
cular cow,  the  grain  in  the  droppings  of  a  cow  or  steer  infected 


518  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

with  the  disease,  hogs  eating  carcasses  of  animals  that  have  died 
with  the  disease,  foods  containing  sputum  of  the  human  affected 
with  tuberculosis,  and  like  causes. 

Prevention  consists  in  the  avoidance  of  all  foods  containing  the 
tubercular  germs  and  in  providing  quarters  similar  to  those 
suggested  for  hog  cholera,  for  poorly  ventilated,  dark,  damp, 
and  filthy  quarters  furnish  ideal  quarters  for  the  breeding  of 
tuberculosis  germs.  The  direct  rays  of  the  sun  and  cleanliness 
provide  conditions  impossible  for  the  lodgment  of  these  germs. 

Care  of  a  tubercular  herd.  — Tuberculosis  in  swine  is  considered 
*as  not  curable.  Furthermore,  its  detection  is  often  difficult. 
A  hog  may  be  affected  with  the  disease  and  not  show  the  inarms 
of  it  until  after  he  is  slaughtered.  As  a  rule,  pigs  are  more  subject 
to  the  disease  than  older  animals,  and  weak  animals  more  liable 
to  attack  than  strong  and  vigorous  ones.  The  difficulty  of  de- 
tecting the  disease  renders  the  care  of  the  tuberculous  animal  haz- 
ardous. The  general  signs  are  coughing,  losing  in  weight  rather 
than  gaining,  and  a  swelling  of  the  glands  about  the  neck.  When 
the  disease  is  discovered,  all  animals  showing  external  indications 
should  be  immediately  destroyed  and  the  carcasses  burned.  The 
remainder  of  the  herd  should  be  put  upon  the  market  at  once  and 
passed  upon  by  a  government  inspector.  Any  animals  that  are 
so  diseased  as  to  render  their  carcasses  unfit  for  food  will  be  con- 
demned. Not  all  hogs  affected  with  tuberculosis  are  condemned. 
When  the  disease  is  present  only  in  the  first  stages  and  only  a  few 
of  the  organs  of  the  body  are  affected,  these  parts  only  are  con- 
demned ;  whereas  if  the  disease  is  general  throughout  the  car- 
cass, the  entire  animal  is  condemned. 

After  an  outbreak  of  tuberculosis  and  the  animals  have  been 
disposed  of,  the  quarters  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected.  To 
do  this,  use  a  five  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solution,  or  a  1  to  1000 
corrosive  sublimate  solution,  and  then  whitewash  with  fresh  lime. 
The  pastures  and  lots  which  are  exposed  to  the  sun  are  not  so  seri- 
ous a  source  of  infection  as  the  buildings.    When  at  all  possible, 


DISEASES   OF  SWINE 


519 


neither  the  house  nor  the  lots  should  be  used  for  a  time,  thus 
giving  the  sun  sufficient  time  to  destroy  all  the  germs. 


WORMS 

Internal  worms  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  swine.  They  in- 
habit both  the  stomach  and  intestines.  These  worms  interfere 
with  digestion ;  in  consequence  the  pigs  fail  to  thrive  and  become 
pot-bellied,  rickety,  profitless  runts,  or  quickly  succumb  to  the 
effects  of  the  worms.  Swine  infested  with  worms  become  an  easy 
prey  to  more  deadly  diseases  because  of  their  weakened  condi- 
tion. 

Prevention  of  worms.  —  Well-fed  swine,  in  general,  are  not  sub- 
ject to  worms.  The  strong  thrifty  pig  is  usually  able  to  resist 
the  parasites.  Hogs  having  free  access  to  wood  ashes,  charcoal, 
air-slaked  lime,  and  coal  cinders  are  not  likely  to  be  troubled. 
The  alkali  in  the  wood  ashes,  together  with  the  grit  in  the  cinders, 
have  a  tendency  to  destroy  the 
worms.  Pumpkins,  fed  seed  and 
all,  in  the  fall  also  help  to  keep 
swine  free  from  worms. 

Stagnant  surface  water,  in 
which  hogs  wallow,  are  ideal 
places  for  the  incubation  and 
development  of  worms.  For 
this  reason  old  pens  and  pas- 
tures, if  wet,  should  not  be  used 
for  hogs.  The  pens  and  pastures  should  be  well  drained  and 
all  stagnant  water  fenced  out  or  the  ponds  filled  in.  The  drink- 
ing water  should  come  from  a  deep  well,  and  it  should  be  kept 
pure  by  using  clean  troughs  so  constructed  or  protected  that 
the  hogs  cannot  wallow  in  them  and  fill  them  with  filth. 

Treatment  for  worms.  —  The  average  herd  of  pigs  is  kept 
under  such  conditions  that  it  is  desirable  to  dose  them  at  least 
once  during  the  year  with  some  remedy  that  will  destroy  the 


Fig.    177.  —  Tamworth  Pig  owned 
by  University  of  Illinois. 


520  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

worms  or  drive  them  out  of  the  intestines.  Turpentine  is  the 
most  popular  remedy  and  perhaps  the  least  dangerous.  It  is 
given  in  the  mash  for  three  successive  mornings  at  the  rate  of 
one  teaspoonful  for  each  80  pounds  live  weight  of  pig.  With- 
holding all  food  should  be  practiced  for  a  short  time  before 
giving  the  remedy. 

Sulfate  of  iron  or  copperas  is  a  more  effective  remedy, 
and  is  given  as  follows :  Dissolve  half  a  dram  of  cop- 
peras in  warm  water  and  mix  in  the  mash  for  each  pig 
for  five  consecutive  mornings,  the. food  being  withheld  for  a 
short  time  before  giving  remedy.  In  very  bad  cases  and 
when  immediate  action  is  desired,  the  affected  pigs  may  be 
given  5  grains  of  calomel  and  8  grains  of  santonin  for 
every  100  pounds  of  live  weight.  The  food  should  be 
withheld  for  at  least  12  hours  before  administering  the 
medicine,  which  is  best  given  in  a  little  mash.  Santonin  is 
somewhat  dangerous  and  should  be  given  in  the  proportion 
mentioned. 

LICE 

The  hog  louse  is  a  common  cause  of  lack  of  thrift  in  young 
pigs,  and  when  numerous,  it  tends  to  retard  fattening.  It 
is  advisable  and  profitable  to  keep  swine  free  from  lice  at  all 
ages.  To  this  end  the  houses  and  pens  should  be  frequently 
cleaned  and  disinfected,  the  woodwork  whitewashed,  the 
bedding  material  kept  fresh,  clean,  and  dry,  and  the  yards 
free  from  accumulations  of  litter  and  filth.  The  hogs  should 
be  dipped  twice  each  year  in  a  coal-tar  dip,  1  part  of  dip  to 
50  of  warm  water,  and  the  treatment  repeated  in  10  days 
to  2  weeks. 

To  destroy  lice,  when  dipping  is  not  possible,  mix  equal 
parts  of  kerosene  and  machine  oil,  or  one  part  of  turpentine 
and  two  parts  of  machine  oil,  and  apply  to  every  part  of  the 
hog  by  means  of  a  rag,  or  swab  of  cotton  waste.  It  may  be 
applied  along  the  back,  from  ears  to  tail,  with  a  common  ma- 


DISEASES   OF  SWINE  521 

chine-oil  can  and  allowed  to  run  down  the  sides  of  the  hog. 
Repeat  the  application  in  ten  days. 

SCOURS 

Scours  in  pigs  results  from  two  causes,  —  improper  feeding  and 
contagious  infection.  Often  the  trouble  comes  from  overfeeding 
on  corn,  or  other  rich  food  just  after  farrowing.  Sudden 
changes  in  the  food  or  feeding  sour  decomposing  slops,  or  food 
from  dirty  troughs,  sour  swill  barrels,  and  the  like,  tend  to  cause 
diarrhea. 

The  best  treatment  for  scouring  pigs  is  to  feed  properly  the 
sows.  The  food  should  consist  largely  of  rather  thin  mash 
made  from  bran,  middlings,  crushed  oats,  and  the  like,  which 
should  be  fed  regularly.  In  ordinary  cases,  treatment  consists 
in  giving  the  nursing  sow  parched  corn  or  scalded  milk  in  her 
food  night  and  morning.  After  the  trouble  has  been  checked,  a 
little  limewater  placed  in  the  mash  often  proves  advantageous. 

The  best  cure  for  the  contagious  form  of  scours  is  a  physic: 
one  tablespoonful  of  castor  oil  in  the  form  of  a  drench,  after 
which  the  pens  should  be  cleaned  and  thoroughly  disinfected. 

CONSTIPATION 

Constipation  frequently  occurs  among  pregnant  sows  and 
other  hogs  when  given  too  little  exercise  and  too  much  food. 
Brood  sows  troubled  with  constipation  are  likely  to  farrow 
weak,  puny  pigs.  This  trouble  seldom  occurs  when  hogs  are 
fed  laxative  foods,  such  as  bran,  linseed-oil  meal,  or  roots,  and 
in  addition  are  made  to  take  exercise.  When  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  treat  the  animals,  a  very  simple  method  is  to  mix  two 
to  four  ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil  once  daily  in  the  food;  or  if 
more  active  treatment  seems  necessary,  give  four  ounces  of 
Epsom  salts  at  one  dose  in  the  same  way.  Swine  that  will  not 
eat  the  food  thus  medicated  should  be  drenched.  Great  care 
should  be  exercised  in  drenching  hogs  or  they  will  suffocate. 


522  MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Drive  the  animals  into  a  small  pen  where  they  have  little  room 
to  move  about.  To  hold  the  animal,  secure  a  quarter-inch  rope, 
place  a  noose  about  the  upper  jaw  well  back  towards  the  angle 
of  the  lips,  and  elevate  the  head.  Wait  until  the  animal  stops 
struggling.  Pull  the  cheek  away  from  the  teeth  so  as  to  form 
a  pouch  into  which  the  medicine  may  be  slowly  poured.  It 
will  flow  from  the  cheek  into  the  mouth,  and  when  the  hog 
finds  out  what  it  is,  he  will  stop  squealing  and  will  swallow.  A 
very  easy  method  is  to  cut  off  the  toe  of  an  old  shoe,  insert  the 
cut  end  into  the  hog's  mouth,  and  pour  the  medicine  into  the 
shoe. 

THUMPS 

Thumps  is  the  term  applied  to  that  ailment  of  young  pigs 
which  is  indicated  by  a  jerking  motion  of  the  flanks.  In 
thumps  there  is  usually  a  derangement  of  the  digestive  organs, 
due  to  overfeeding  or  lack  of  exercise.  The  tendency  towards 
the  disease  seems  to  be  hereditary.  When  once  the  trouble 
occurs,  the  treatment  is  prevention  by  decreasing  the  sow's 
milk-producing  food  until  the  pigs  are  older.  Compel  the  pigs 
to  take  exercise  by  driving  them  from  their  nests.  A  very  good 
method  when  one  has  the  time  is  to  place  the  little  pigs  in  a 
lot  near  the  mother  and  let  them  wony  about  getting  back. 
They  must  be  separated  but  a  very  short  time,  for  they  may 
nurse  too  much  when  turned  back. 

SORE    MOUTH 

Pigs  are  often  troubled  with  sore  mouth.  Large  white 
blisters  occur  about  the  mouth  and  snout,  and  later  thick 
brown  scabs  appear,  which  open  into  deep  cracks.  These  scabs 
extend  over  the  face  and  later  to  all  parts  of  the  body  if  not 
treated.  These  sores  are  due  to  a  germ,  and  are  likely  to  attack 
pigs  kept  in  filthy  quarters.  Prevention  consists  in  providing 
comfortable   quarters  for  the  youngsters.      Treatment  is  not 


DISEASES   OF  SWINE  523 

difficult,  but  should  be  prompt  and  thorough.  Prepare  a  solu- 
tion of  permanganate  of  potash,  using  one  and  one-half  ounces 
of  the  crystals  dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  warm  water.  Dip 
the  young  pig,  head  foremost,  into  this  solution  and  hold  it  there 
a  few  seconds.  Repeat  three  times,  giving  the  pig  time  to  catch 
his  breath  in  the  intermission.  The  treatment  should  be  re- 
peated for  four  days,  after  which  the  quarters  should  be  dis- 
infected. 

GARGET 

Inflammation  of  the  udder  is  rather  common  among  heavy- 
milking  brood  sows,  and  is  usually  caused  by  the  milk  not 
being  removed.  The  udder  thus  becomes  congested,  sore,  and 
later  cakes.  The  treatment  is  to  relieve  the  congestion  by 
drawing  off  the  milk.  This  should  be  done  before  farrowing, 
if  the  udder  is  distended.  After  the  milk  is  drawn,  gently  but 
thoroughly  rub  the  udder.  Bathe  the  parts  with  hot  water 
fifteen  minutes  at  a  time  and  rub  dry  and  apply  an  ointment 
made  as  follows :  Dissolve  two  tablespoonfuls  of  gum  camphor 
in  a  teacupful  of  melted  fresh  lard,  to  which  add  one  ounce  of 
the  fluid  extract  of  belladonna.  The  udder  should  be  bathed 
three  times  daily  and  then  the  ointment  well  rubbed  in. 

REMOVING    THE    TUSKS 

After  one  year  old,  all  boars  should  have  their  tusks  removed 
twice  a  year.  To  hold  the  hog,  place  a  noose  around  the  upper 
jaw  (as  suggested  in  drenching,  p.  522)  and  tie  to  a  post.  Then 
with  strong  nippers  or  sharp  blacksmith's  pincers  remove  the 
tusk.  In  older  boars,  when  the  tusks  are  hard  and  will  not 
cut,  they  should  be  filed  and  then  broken  off  as  follows :  after 
tying  the  boar  to  the  post,  an  assistant  stands  astride  the 
animal  and  places  a  stick  in  his  mouth,  takes  hold  of  either 
end,  and  pulls  back  as  far  as  he  can  and  holds  steady.  With  a 
three-cornered  file  notch  each  corner  of  the  tusk,  then  put  the 


524  MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

point  of  an  iron  wedge  in  one  of  the  notches,  and  tap  the  tusk 
with  a  hammer,  and  it  will  break  squarely  off.  The  tusk  may 
then  be  filed  off  rounding. 

CHICKEN-EATING    SWINE 

While  not  a  disease,  chicken  eating  is  a  vicious  habit  often 
contracted  by  swine  kept  near  chicken  yards.  The  habit 
once  acquired  is  often  difficult  to  overcome.  A  very  good  device 
to  prevent  the  hogs  from  catching  the  fowls  is  a  common  four- 
inch  ring  hung  before  the  hog's  snout.  This  may  be  held  in 
place  with  the  ordinary  hog-ring  placed  around  the  four-inch 
ring  and  into  the  nose,  as  when  ringing  to  prevent  rooting. 
Thus  the  large  ring  hangs  in  front  of  the  hog's  snout  and  pushes 
the  chicken  away  as  the  hog  reaches  for  it. 


APPENDIX 


AVERAGE    WEIGHTS    OF   FEEDING    STUFFS 

As  a  rule  under  average  farm  conditions,  it  is  not  practicable 
to  weigh  each  mess  of  food,  nor  is  it  necessary,  as  measuring 
is  sufficiently  accurate.  The  food  from  the  measure  should 
be  weighed  a  few  times  at  the  beginning.  To  aid  in  approxi- 
mating the  weight  of  the  various  foods,  the  following  table 
of  weights  and  measures  is  quoted  from  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  222 :  -  Table  r 

Average  Weights  of  Different  Feeding  Stuffs 


Feeding  Stuff 


Corn,  whole 

Corn,  meal  ..... 
Corn,  bran  .  .  '.  .  . 
Corn  and  cob  meal  .     .     . 

Gluten  meal 

Gluten  feed 

Germ  meal 

Hominy  meal       .... 
Distillers'  grains,  dried 
Wheat,  whole       .... 
Wheat,  ground     .... 

Wheat,  bran 

Wheat  middlings  (standard) 
Wheat  middlings  (flour)    . 

Oats,  whole 

Oats,  ground  ..... 
Rye,  whole      ..... 

Rye,  meal 

Rye,  bran 

Barley,  whole       .... 

Barley,  meal 

Brewers'  dried  grains    .     . 

Malt  sprouts 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 
Linseed  meal,  new  process 
Cotton-seed  meal 


One  Quart 
Weighs 


Pounds 


1.7 
1.5 
0.5 
1.4 
1.7 
1.3 
1.4 
1.1 
0.6 
2.0 
1.7 
0.5 
0.8 
1.2 
1.0 
0.7 
1.7 
1.5 
0.6 
1.5 
1.1 
0.6 
0.6 
1.1 
0.9 
1.5 


One  Pound 
Measures 


Quarts 


0.6 
0.7 
2.0 
0.7 
0.6 
0.8 
0.7 
0.9 
1.2 
0.5 
0.5 
2.0 
1.3 
0.8 
1.0 
1.4 
0.6 
0.7 
1.8 
0.7 
0.9 
1.7 
1.7 
0.9 
1.1 
0.7 


525 


526 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS    IN    FEEDING    STUFFS 

In  calculating  a  ration  for  any  class  of  farm  animals,  the 
digestible  nutrients  of  the  foods  must  be  known,  as  it  is 
the  digestible  part  only  that  is  of  use  to  the  animal.  The 
following  table,  adopted  from  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  gives  a  very  complete  list  of  American 
feeding  stuffs  and  their  digestible  nutrients :  — 


Table  II 

Average  Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents 


1    Dry 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Fertilizing  Constitu- 

Mat- 
ter 

IN 

100 

Pounds 

in 

100  Pounds 

ents  i 

n  1000  Pounds 

Name  of  Feed 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Ether 
Extract 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Concentrates 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Corn,  all  analyses     . 

89.1 

7.9 

66.7 

4.3 

18.2 

7.0 

4.0 

Dent  corn 

89.4 

7.8 

66.7 

4.3 

16.5 

Flint  corn 

88.7 

8.0 

66.2 

4.3 

16.8 

.    •    • 

Sweet  corn       .... 

91.2 

8.8 

63.7 

7.0 

18.6 

Corn  cob 

89.3 

0.4 

52.5 

0.3 

5.0 

0.6 

6.0 

Corn  and  cob  meal  . 

84.9 

4.4 

60.0 

2.9 

14.1 

5.7 

4.7 

Corn  bran 

90.9 

7.4 

59.8 

4.6 

16.3 

12.1 

6.8 

Gluten  meal    .... 

91.8 

25.8 

43.3 

11.0 

50.3 

3.3 

0.5 

Gluten  feed     .... 

92.2 

20.4 

48.4 

8.8 

38.4 

4.1 

0.3 

Germ  meal       .... 

89.6 

9.0 

61.2 

6.2 

26.5 

8.0 

5.0 

Starch  refuse  .... 

91.8 

11.4 

58.4 

6.5 

22.4 

7.0 

5.2 

Grano-gluten  .... 

94.3 

26.7 

38.8 

12.4 

49.8 

5.1 

1.5 

Hominy  chops      .     .     . 

89.9 

7.5 

55.2 

6.8 

16.3 

9.8 

4.9 

Glucose  meal  .... 

91.9 

30.3 

35.3 

14.5 

57.7 

Sugar  meal  ..... 

93.2 

18.7 

51.7 

8.7 

36.3 

4.1 

0.3 

Distillery  grains  (dried) 

principally  corn    . 

93.0 

21.9 

38.1 

10.8 

. . . 

Atlas  gluten  feed   (dis- 

tillery by-products)   . 

92.6 

23.3 

35.6 

11.9 

APPENDIX 


527 


Table  II  —  Continued 


Name  of  Feed 


Wheat    .... 
Wheat  bran     .     . 
Wheat  bran,  spring 
Wheat  bran,  winter 
Wheat  shorts  .     . 
Wheat  middlings 
Wheat  screenings 
Dark  feeding  flour 
High  grade  flour 
Low  grade  flour    . 


Rye 

Rye  bran  .  .  . 
Rye  shorts  .  . 
Distillery  grains  (dried) 

principally  rye 
Barley    .... 
Malt  sprouts  .     . 
Brewers'  grains,  wet 
Brewers'  grains,  dried 


Oats  .     . 
Oatmeal 
Oat  feed  or 
Oat  hulls 
Oat  dust 

Rice  .     . 
Rice  hulls 
Rice  bran 
Rice  polish 


shorts 


Dry 
Mat- 
ter 
in 
100 
Pounds 


Lb. 
89.5 

88.1 
88.5 
87.7 
88.2 
87.9 
88.4 
90.3 
87.6 
87.6 


88.4 
88.4 
90.7 

93.2 
89.1 
89.8 
24.3 
91.8 

89.0 
92.1 
92.3 
90.6 
93.5 

87.6 
91.8 
90.3 
90.0 


Digestible  Nutrients 
in  100  Pounds 


Protein 


Lb. 
10.2 

12.2 

12.9 

12.3 

12.2 

12.8 

9.8 

13.5 

8.9 

8.2 

9.9 
11.5 
11.9 

10.4 
8.7 

18.6 
3.9 

15.7 

9.2 

11.5 

12.5 

1.3 

8.9 

4.8 
1.6 
5.3 
9.0 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 


Lb. 
69.2 

39.2 
40.1 
37.1 
50.0 
53.0 
51.0 
61.3 
62.4 
62.7 

67.6 
50.3 
45.1 

42.5 
65.6 
37.1 
9.3 
36.3 

47.3 
52.1 
46.9 
40.1 
38.4 

72.2 
44.5 
45.1 
56.4 


Ether 
Extract 


Fertilizing  Constitu- 
ents in  1000  Pounds 


Lb. 
1.7 

2.7 
3.4 
2.6 
3.8 
3.4 
2.2 
2.0 
0.9 
0.9 

1.1 
2.0 
1.6 

6.4 

1.6 
1.7 
1.4 
5.1 

4.2 
5.9 

2.8 
0.6 
5.1 

0.3 
0.6 
7.3 
6.5 


Nitro- 
gen 


Lb. 

23.6 

26.7 


28.2 
26.3 
24.4 
31.8 
18.9 
28.9 

17.6 
23.2 

18.4 


15.1 
35.5 

8.9 
36.2 

20.6 
23.5 
17.2 
5.2 
21.6 

10.8 
5.8 
7.1 

19.7 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 


Lb. 

7.9 

28.9 


13.5 

9.5 

11.7 

21.4 

2.2 

5.6 

8.2 
22.8 
12.6 


7.9 
14.3 

3.1 
10.3 

8.2 

9.1 
2.4 


1.8 

1.7 

2.9 

26.7 


Potash 


Lb. 

5.0 
16.1 


5.9 
6.3 
8.4 
10.9 
1.5 
3.5 

5.4 

14.0 
8.1 


4.8 

16.3 

0.5 

0.9 

6.2 

5.3 
5.2 


0.9 
1.4 
2.4 
7.1 


528 


MANUAL   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Table  II  —  Continued 


Dry 

Digestible   Nutrients 

Fertilizing    Constitu- 

Mat- 
ter 
in 
100 
Pounds 

in  100  Pounds 

ents  in  1000  Pounds 

Name  of  Feed 

Protein 

Carbo- 

hy- 
drates 

Ether 

Extract 

Nitro- 
gen 

■ 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Buckwheat      .... 

87.4 

7.7 

49.2 

1.8 

14.4 

4.4 

2.1 

Buckwheat  middlings    . 

87.3 

22.0' 

33.4 

5.4 

42.8 

21.9 

11.4 

Buckwheat  bran       .     . 

89.5 

7.4 

30.4 

1.9 

36.4 

17.8 

12.8 

Buckwheat  shorts     .     . 

88.9 

21.1 

33.5 

5.5 

Buckwheat  hulls       .     . 

86.8 

2.1 

27.9 

0.6 

4.9 

0.7 

5.2 

Sorghum  seed       .     .     . 

87.2 

7.0 

52.1 

3.1 

14.8 

8.1 

4.2 

Broom  corn  seed 

85.9 

7.4 

48.3 

2.9 

16.3 

. . . 

84.8 

7.8 

57.1 

2.7 

. .  . 

Millet     ...... 

86  0 

8.9 

45.0 

3.2 

20.4 

8.5 

3.6 

Flaxseed      

90.8 

20.6 

17.1 

29.0 

36.1 

13.9 

10.3 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 

90.8 

29.3 

32.7 

7.0 

54.3 

16.6 

13.7 

Linseed  meal,  new  pro- 

cess      ..... 

89.9 

28.2 

40.1 

2.8 

57.8 

18.3 

13.9 

Cotton-seed     .... 

89.7 

12.5 

30.0 

17.3 

31.3 

12.7 

11.7 

Cotton-seed  meal      .     . 

91.8 

37.2 

16.9 

12.2 

67.9 

28.8 

8.7 

Cotton-seed  hulls      .     . 

88.9 

0.3 

33.1 

1.7 

6.9 

2.5 

10.2 

89  5 

16.8 

51.8 

0.7 

30.8 

8.2 

9.9 

85.2 

18.3 

54.2 

1.1 

33.3 

Soybean      

89.2 

29.6 

22.3 

14.4 

53.0 

18.7 

19.0 

Horse  bean      .... 

85.7 

22.4 

49.3 

1.2 

40.7 

12.0 

12.9 

Coconut  meal       .     . 

89.7 

15.6 

38.3 

10.5 

32.8 

16.0 

24.0 

Palm-nut  meal     .     . 

89.6 

16.0 

52.6 

9.0 

26.9 

11.0 

5.0 

Sunflower  seed     .     .     . 

92.5 

12.1 

20.8 

29.0 

22.8 

12.2 

5.6 

Sunflower  seedcakes 

91.8 

31.2 

19.6 

12.8 

55.5 

21.5 

11.7 

Peanut  meal    .... 

89.3 

42.9 

22.8 

6.9 

75.6 

13.1 

15.0 

Rapeseed  meal     . 

90.0 

25.2 

23.7 

7.5 

49.6 

20.0 

13.0 

APPENDIX 


529 


Table  II  —  Continued 


Dry 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Fertilizing  Constitu- 

Mat- 
ter 

IX 

100  Pounds 

ents  in  1000  ] 

^ouxds 

Name  of  Feed 

in 

100 

Pounds 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Ether 
Extract 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Roughage 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Fodder  corn  — 

Fodder  corn,  green    . 

20.7 

1.0 

11.6 

0.4 

4.1 

1.5 

3.3 

Fodder      corn,     field- 

57.8 

2.5 

34.6 

1.2 

17.6 

5.4 

8.9 

Corn     stover,     field- 

cured      

59.5 

1.7 

32.4 

0.7 

10.4 

2.9 

14.0 

Kafir      corn .    stover, 

field-cured  .... 

86.5 

2.3 

44.8 

0.8 

■    ■    • 

Sorghum  (cane)      .     . 

94.2 

2.5 

44.3 

0.9 

Fresh  grass  — 

Pasture             grasses 

(mixed)     .     .     .     . 

20.0 

2.5 

10.2 

0.5 

9.1 

2.3 

7.5 

Kentucky  blue  grass. 

34.9 

3.0 

19.8 

0.8 

Timothy,       different 

stages       .... 

38.4 

1.2 

19.1 

0.6 

4.8 

2.6 

7.6 

Orchard-grass,          in 

bloom       .... 

27.0 

1.5 

11.4 

0.5 

4.3 

1.6 

7.6 

Redtop,  in  bloom 

34.7 

2.1 

21.2 

0.6 

Oat  fodder  .... 

37.8 

2.6 

18.9 

1.0 

4.9 

1.3 

3.8 

Rye  fodder       .     .     . 

23.4 

2.1 

14.1 

0.4 

3.3 

1.5 

7.3 

Sorghum      .... 

20.6 

0.6 

12.2 

0.4 

2.3 

0.9 

2.3 

Meadow     fescue,     in 

30.1 

1.5 

16.8 

0.4 

Hungarian  grass  .     . 

28.9 

2.0 

16.0 

0.4 

3.9 

1.6 

5.5 

Green  barley    .     . 

21.0 

1.9 

10.2 

0.4 

Peas  and  oats  .     . 

16.0 

1.8 

7.1 

0.2 

Peas  and  barley    . 

16.0 

1.7 

7.2 

0.2 

.    .    . 

Kafir  fodder     .     .     . 

27.0 

0.9 

13.8 

0.4 

2  H 


530 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Table   II  —  Continued 


Dry 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Fertilizing    Constitu- 

Mat- 

in 100  Pounds 

ents  in  1000  Pounds 

Name  of  Feed 

in 

100 

Pounds 

Protein 

Carbo- 

hy- 
drates 

Ether 
Extract 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Fresh  legumes  — 

Red  clover,  different 

stages        .... 

29.2 

2.9 

14.8 

0.7 

5.3 

1.3 

4.6 

Crimson  clover 

19.1 

2.4 

9.1 

0.5 

4.3 

1.3 

4.9 

Alsike,  in  bloom    . 

25.2 

2.7 

13.1 

0.6 

4.4 

1.1 

2.0 

Alfalfa 

28.2 

3.9 

12.7 

0.5 

7.2 

1.3 

5.6 

Cowpea 

16.4 

1.8 

8.7 

0.2 

2.7 

1.0 

3.1 

Soybean       .     .     .     . 

24.9 

3.2 

11.0 

0.5 

2.9 

1.5 

5.3 

Hay  — 

Timothy       .... 

86.8 

2.8 

43.4 

1.4 

12.6 

5.3 

9.0 

Orchard  grass  . 

90.1 

4.9 

42.3 

1.4 

13.1 

4.1 

18.8 

Redtop 

91.1 

4.8 

46.9 

1.0 

11.5 

3.6 

10.2 

Kentucky  blue  grass . 

78.8 

4.8 

37.3 

2.0 

11.9 

4.0 

15.7 

Hungarian  grass    . 

92.3 

4.5 

51.7 

1.3 

12.0 

3.5 

13.0 

Mixed  grasses  .     .     . 

87.1 

5.9 

40.9 

1.2 

14.1 

2.7 

15.5 

Rowen  (mixed) 

83.4 

7.9 

40.1 

1.5 

16.1 

4.3 

14.9 

Meadow  fescue 

80.0 

4.2 

43.3 

1.7 

9.9 

4.0 

21.0 

Mixed     grasses     and 

87.1 

6.2 

42.7 

1.5 

Soybean  hay     .     .     . 

88.7 

10.8 

38.7 

1.5 

23.2 

6.7 

10.8 

Oat  hay 

91.1 

4.3 

46.4 

1.5 

Marsh  or  swamp  hay 

88.4 

2.4 

29.9 

0.9 

White  daisy 

85.0 

3.8 

40.7 

1.2 

Barley 

89.4 

5.1 

35.9 

1.6 

. . . 

Prairie  (native)     .     . 

94.4 

3.7 

43.6 

0.9 

Legume  hay  — 

Red  clover,  medium  . 

84.7 

6.8 

35.8 

1.7 

20.7 

3.8 

22.0 

Red  clover,  mammoth 

78.8 

5.7 

32.0 

1.9 

22.3 

5.5 

12.2 

Alsike  clover    . 

90.3 

8.4 

42.5 

1.5 

23.4 

6.7 

22.3 

APPENDIX 


531 


Table  II  —  Continued 


Dry 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Fertilizing  Constitu- 

Mat- 

in 

100  Pounds 

ents  in  1000  Pounds 

Name  of  Feed 

ter 

in 

100 

Pounds 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Ether 
Extract 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

White  clover    .     .     . 

90.3 

11.5 

42.2 

1.5 

27.5 

5.2 

18.1 

Crimson  clover     .     . 

90.4 

10.5 

34.9 

1.2 

20.5 

4.0 

13.1 

Alfalfa 

91.6 

11.0 

39.6 

1.2 

21.9 

5.1 

16.8 

Cowpea 

89.3 

10.8 

38.6 

1.1 

19.5 

5.2 

14.7 

Soybean-straw 

89.9 

2.3 

40.0 

1.0 

17.5 

4.0 

13.2 

Pea  vine-straw . 

86.4 

4.3 

32.3 

0.8 

14.3 

3.5 

10.2 

Straw  — 

Wheat 

90.4 

0.4 

36.3 

0.4 

5.9 

1.2 

5.1 

Rye 

92.9 

0.6 

40.6 

0.4 

4.6 

2.8 

7.9 

Oat 

90.8 

1.2 

38.6 

0.8 

6.2 

2.0 

12.4 

Barley 

85.8 

0.7 

41.2 

0.6 

13.1 

3.0 

20.9 

Oat  chaff     .... 

85.7 

1.5 

33.0 

0.7 

Wheat  chaff     .     .     . 

85.7 

0.3 

23.3 

0.5 

7.9 

7.0 

4.2 

Silage  — 

Corn 

20  9 

0.9 

11.3 

0.7 

2.8 

1.1 

3.7 

Clover 

28.0 

2.0 

13.5 

1.0 

Sorghum      .... 

23.9 

0.6 

14.9 

0.2 

Alfalfa 

27.5 

3.0 

8.5 

1.9 

Grass 

32.0 

1.9 

13.4 

1.6 

Cowpea  vine    . 

20.7 

1.5 

8.6 

0.9 

Soybean       .... 

25.8 

2.7 

8.7 

1.3 

Barnyard  millet  and 

soybean    .... 

21.0 

1.6 

9.2 

0.7 

Corn  and  soybean    . 

24.0 

1.6 

13.0 

0.7 

Roots  and  tubers  — 

Beet,  mangel    .     .     . 

9.1 

1.1 

5.4 

0.1 

1.9 

0.9 

3.8 

Beet,  sugar 

13.5 

1.1 

10.2 

0.1 

2.2 

1.0 

4.8 

Beet,  common 

13.0 

1.2 

8.8 

0.1 

2.4 

0.9 

4.4 

532 


MANUAL    OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Table  II  —  Continued 


Dry 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Fertilizing  Constitu- 

Mat- 
ter 

IN 

100 
Pounds 

in 

100  Pounds 

ents  in  1000  Pounds 

Name  op  Feed 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Ether 
Extract 

Nitro- 
gen 

I 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Rutabaga     .... 

11.4 

1.0 

8.1 

0.2 

1.9 

1.2 

4.9 

Carrot 

11.4 

0.8 

7.8 

0.2 

1.5 

0.9 

5.1 

Flat  turnip        .     .     . 

9.5 

1.0 

7.2 

0.2 

1.8 

1.0 

3.9 

Artichoke     .... 

20.0 

2.0 

16.8 

0.2 

2.6 

1.4 

4.7 

Potato 

21.1 

0.9 

16.3 

0.1 

3.2 

1.2 

4.6 

Parsnip   .     .     .     .     . 

11.7 

1.6 

11.2 

0.2 

1.8 

2.0 

4.4 

Miscellaneous  — 

Rape 

140 

1.5 

8.1 

0.2 

4.5 

1.5 

3.6 

Cabbage       .... 

15.3 

1.8 

8.2 

0.4 

3.8 

1.1 

4.3 

Pumpkin,  field 

9.1 

1.0 

5.8 

0.3 

Pumpkin,  garden 

19.2 

1.4 

8.3 

0.8 

1.1 

1.6 

0.9 

Sugar  beet  leaves 

12.0 

1.7 

4.6 

0.2 

4.1 

1.5 

6.2 

Spurry 

20.0 

1.5 

9.8 

0.3 

3.8 

2.5 

5.9 

Prickly  comfrey    . 

11.6 

1.4 

4.6 

0.2 

4.2 

1.1 

7.5 

Acorns,  fresh    .     .     . 

44.7 

2.1 

34.4 

1.7 

Beet  molasses  . 

79.2 

9.1 

59.5 

0.0 

14.6 

0.5 

56.3 

Beet  pulp     .... 

10.2 

0.6 

7.3 

0.0 

1.4 

0.2 

0.4 

Dried  blood      .     .     . 

91.5 

52.3 

0.0 

2.5 

135.0 

13.5 

7.7 

Meat  scrap       .     .     . 

89.3 

66.2 

0.3 

13.7 

113.9 

7.0 

1.0 

Tankage       .... 

93.0 

31.7 

15.3 

13.6 

. . . 

Dried  fish     .... 

89  2 

44.1 

0.0 

10.3 

77.5 

120.0 

2.0 

Cow's  milk  .... 

12.8 

3.6 

4.9 

3.7 

5.3 

1.9 

1.8 

Cow's  milk,  colostrum 

25.4 

17.6 

2.7 

3.6 

28.2 

6.6 

1.1 

Skim-milk,  gravity    . 

9.6 

3.1 

4.7 

0.8 

5.6 

2.0 

1.9 

Skim-milk,  centrifugal 

9.4 

2.9 

5.2 

0.3 

5.6 

2.0 

1.9 

Buttermilk  .... 

9.9 

3.9 

4.0 

1.1 

4.8 

1.7 

1.6 

Whey 

66 

0.8 

4.7 

0.3 

1.5 

1.4 

1.8 

INDEX 


Aberdeen  Angus  cattle,  298. 

Abortion,  in  cows,  332 ;  contagious, 
333  ;  non-contagious,  332  ;  in  mares, 
110. 

Acid,  sulfuric,  253. 

Action  in  horses,  21,  22. 

Afterbirth,  336. 

Age,  of  cow,  how  to  estimate,  187 ;  to 
feed  cattle,  276 ;  of  horse,  how  to 
estimate,  7  ;  of  sheep,  how  to  esti- 
mate, 361 ;  of  swine,  454. 

Aged  horses,  11. 

Allerton,  87. 

American  Merino,  364,  375. 

American  saddle  horse,  97. 

American  trotter,  24. 

Ames,  F.  L.,  192,  197. 

Angus  cattle,  73. 

Animals,  breeding,  70;    feeding,  37. 

Apoplexy  parturition,  339. 

Arab  horse,  6. 

Arfman,  John,  208. 

Arms,  in  horses,  25,  34. 

Artichoke,  475. 

A-shaped  hog  house,  507. 

Associations,  testing,  235. 

Asthma,  176. 

Atavism,  82. 

Auten,  A.  O.,  250. 

Average  production  for  cow,  229. 

Ayreshire  cattle,  228. 

Azoturia,  179. 

Baby-beef,     291 ;      advantages,     292 ; 

cattle    used,     292 ;      disadvantages, 

293  ;    feeds  used,  292. 
Back-band,  147. 
Back,  in  swine,  461. 
Bacon,   Canada,   483 ;    skim-milk  for, 

488 ;  type,  454. 
Bacon-hog,  choosing,  464 ;    condition, 

464  ;   feeding,  483  ;   form,  464  ;   feed- 


ing   in    summer,    484;     feeding    in 
winter,  484. 

Bakewell,  Robert,  70. 

Balanced  ration,  51 ;  use,  55. 

Bandage,  152. 

Bang,  Dr.,  350. 

Barn,  dairy,  264;  floors,  268;  hog, 
505;  sheep,  433;  ventilation,  266; 
watering  device,  270. 

Barrenness  in  mares,  109 ;  in  cows, 
332. 

Barrier,  10. 

Bathing,  156. 

Bedding  for  horses,  129 ;  corn  stalks, 
leaves,  shavings,  straw,  129 ;  the 
cow,  258;    sheep,  388,  436. 

Beef,  baby,  291 ;  food  requirements 
for,  281. 

Beef  cattle,  Aberdeen  Angus,  298 
abortion,  332 ;  age  to  feed,  276 
barrenness,  332 ;  bloating,  351 
breeds,  308  ;  breeding,  305 ;  breed- 
ing stock,  308;  bull,  311;  butchers' 
demands,  277 ;  care  and  manage- 
ment, 320 ;  calves  from  best  cows, 
307;  care  of  calf,  315-317;  choos- 
ing, 198  ;  condition  of  feeder,  200  ; 
condition  for  feeding,  278 ;  compo- 
sition of  carcass,  276 ;  cooperative 
grading-up,  307;  cost  of  bull,  311; 
cow,  313  ;  cow  with  calf  at  foot,  315  ; 
crossing,  308  ;  dehorning,  354  ;  detail 
characters,  200 ;  difficult  parturi- 
tion, 334 ;  diseases,  331 ;  drifting, 
300  ;  dual  purpose  cow,  309  ;  equip- 
ment for  summer  feeding,  322 ; 
equipment  for  winter  feeding,  326  ; 
essentials  of  feeding  cattle,  275 ; 
eversion  of  the  womb,  338 ;  farms, 
322  ;  fat  steer,  198 ;  fat  steer  indi- 
cations, 202;  feed-bunk,  323,  327; 
feed    lot,    327;     feeding,    275,    318; 


533 


534 


INDEX 


feeding  for  local  market,  293 ;  feed- 
ing grain  or  pasture,  285 ;  feeding- 
standards,  282  ;  feeding  shed,  326  ; 
feeder,  198 ;  forage  racks,  328  ;  form 
of  feeder,  199 ;  form  for  feeding, 
277;  Galloway  bull,  312;  garget, 
340  ;  general  examination,  199  ;  food 
requirements,  281 ;  Hereford  cow, 
306  ;  hogs  following,  295  ;  increasing 
feeding  capacity,  284 ;  indications 
of  doing  well,  320 ;  impaction,  353  ; 
length  of  feeding  period,  297 ;  milk 
fever,  338  ;  "on  feed,"  296  ;  pasture, 
322  ;  percentage  dress,  278  ;  plan  of 
breeding,  307 ;  preparing  for  ship- 
ment, 300  ;  pregnant  cow,  314  ;  pro- 
duction period,  313 ;  quality  for 
feeding,  279  ;  quality  of  feeder,  199  ; 
retained  afterbirth,  336 ;  salt,  325  ; 
sample  rations,  300-304  ;  season  to 
breed,  313  ;  self-feeder,  325  ;  shade, 
325  ;  shipping,  299  ;  store  steer,  198  ; 
summer  feeding  on  pasture,  284 ; 
turning  to  grass,  285 ;  tuberculosis, 
343;  type,  186;  uniformity,  200, 
310;  value  of  uniformity,  280; 
water,  325  ;  weaning  the  calf,  316  ; 
when  to  market,  299 ;  white  face, 
306  ;  wintering,  282  ;  winter  feeding 
in  dry  lot,  289. 

Belgian  horse,  58. 

Belly  in  lard  hogs,  462. 

Berkshire  swine,  463  ;  sow,  460. 

Bit,  142;  curb,  143;  its  use,  136; 
snaffle,  142  ;  straight,  142 ;  tongue- 
lolling,  143. 

Bitting,  137. 

Bitting-harness,  137. 

Black  Top  Merino,  360. 

Blankets,  fly,  148 ;  for  horses,  130 ; 
outdoor,  131  ;    stable,  130. 

Blemish,  14. 

Blinds,  143. 

Blisters,  156. 

Bloat  in  cattle,  351 ;   in  sheep,  446. 

Blood-spavin,  18,  161. 

Boar,  490. 

Body,  in  beef  cattle,  201 ;  dairy  cattle, 
194  ;    horses,  27,  36 ;   sheep,  370. 

Bog-spavin,  18,  161. 

Bone-spavin,  158. 


Bony  enlargements,  158. 

Bot-flies,  148. 

Bottles,  whirling  test,  233. 

Bowen  &  Quick,  214. 

Breast  harness,  147. 

Breeching,  147. 

Breeding  animals,  70 ;  atavism,  82  ; 
beef  cattle,  305;  beef  bull,  311; 
calves  from  best  cows,  237 ;  co- 
operative, 238  ;  crate  for  swine,  493  ; 
crossing  beef  breeds,  308 ;  dairy 
cattle,  227 ;  ewe  flock,  406 ;  ewes, 
407 ;  grading-up  beef  cattle,  307  ; 
heredity,  83  ;  horses  and  mules,  96 ; 
inheritance  of  disease,  83 ;  like  pro- 
duces like,  71 ;  marc,  103  ;  mating, 
81 ;  mating  sheep,  407  ;  plan  of,  237  ; 
plan  beef  cattle,  307 ;  plan  for 
sheep,  404 ;  plan  for  swine,  487 ; 
prepotency,  84  ;  purity  of,  85  ;  ram, 
406;  reversion,  82;  season  of  year 
to  breed  horses,  104 ;  selection,  77 ; 
selection  and  improvement,  242 ; 
sheep,  403 ;  soundness,  102 ;  stal- 
lion, 102  ;  sterility,  88  ;  swine,  487  ; 
systems  of,  89,  breeding  from  best, 
95,  crossing,  90,  grading,  89,  line- 
breeding,  90,  in-breeding,  91. 

Bridle,  142  ;  blinds,  143  ;  center-pieces, 
144  ;  check-rein,  144  ;  ear-bobs,  144  ; 
head-stall,  143;  tassels,  144;  throat 
latch,  144. 

Broken  wind,  176. 

Brown  Swiss  bull,  252. 

Brown  Swiss  cow  "Vogel,"  258. 

Bull,  244  ;  beef  (see  beef  cattle)  ;  dairy 
(see  dairy  cattle)  ;    ringing,  264. 

Bunions,  17. 

Butter,  227. 

Cabbage,  386. 

Calf,  250 ;  and  cow,  315 ;  castrating 
male  calf,  255 ;  constipation,  341  ; 
dairy,  250 :  danger  of  over-feeding, 
253 ;  diarrhea,  341 ;  feeding  beef, 
318 ;  from  best  cows,  237 ;  grain 
mixture  for,  226 ;  ills,  340,  consti- 
pation, 341 ;  scours,  contagious  or 
"white  scours"  and  simple,  341  ; 
milk  substitutes  for  feeding,  255  ; 
on  skim-milk,  253  ;    on  whole  milk, 


INDEX 


535 


253  ;  removing  horns,  255  ;  scours, 
341  ;    teaching  to  think,  252. 

Calk- wound,  132,  106. 

Cannon  in  light  horses,  26,  28 ;  in 
heavy  horses,  34. 

Cans,  milk,  260. 

Canula  and  trocar,  352. 

Capped-elbows,  164. 

Capped-hock,  164. 

Capped-knee,  164. 

Care,  beef  cattle,  320 ;  dairy  cattle, 
257  ;  horse,  127  ;  sheep,  422  ;  swine, 
503. 

Carpenter  &  Ross,  277. 

Cart-horse,  70. 

Cart  training,  139. 

Caryle,  221. 

Caryle's  soiling  system,  221. 

Castleman,  J.  B.,  97. 

Castrating  calf,  255 ;  lambs,  419 ; 
swine,  501. 

Catalonian  jack,  123. 

Catarrh,  174. 

Cattle  (for  beef  cattle  see  beef  cattle)  ; 
(for  dairy  cattle  see  dairy  cattle)  ; 
age  by  horns,  189 ;  estimating  age, 
178;  teeth,  187;  types,  185;  beef 
and  dairy,  186. 

Champlin  Bros.,  91. 

Chatillon's  Spring  Balance,  230. 

Check-rein,  144. 

Cheese,  227. 

Cheshire,  swine,  496 ;    pig,  493. 

Chest,  in  light  horses,  24 ;  in  heavy 
horses,  34. 

Chester  White,  swine,  479  ;    boar,  476. 

Cheviot,  sheep,  425. 

Chicken-eating  swine,  524. 

Chief  perfection,  85. 

Choking,  170. 

Cholera,  in  swine,  511;  immunization, 
513;  preventing,  511;  spreading 
disease,  511  ;  serum,  513;  use  of  se- 
rum, 515. 

Choosing  cattle,  185  ;  horses,  3  ;  sheep, 
359 ;  swine,  453. 

Clipping  cow's  udder,  258  ;  horses,  128. 

Clover,  386. 

Clydesdale  horse,  30. 

Colantha  4th's  Johanna,  229. 

Collar,  145  ;    kinds :    common  leather, 


half  sweeney,  humane,  pneumatic 
and  steel,  146. 

Colic,  172. 

Colt,  age,  8 ;  age  to  bit,  136 ;  bitting, 
137;  harnessing,  138;  ill,  115;  con- 
stipation, 115;  scours,  115;  navel 
disease,  116;  method  of  catching, 
134 ;  training,  133 ;  training  to 
mount,  140  ;  training  uses  of  the  bit, 
136. 

Company  plan  of  buying  horses,  99. 

Composition  beef  cattle  carcass,  276. 

Condition  of  beef  cattle,  200  ;  market- 
able, 297;  of  dairy  cattle,  193;  of 
swine,  464. 

Constipation,  174 ;  calf,  341 ;  foal, 
115;  lamb,  416;  sheep,  447;  swine, 
521. 

Constitution  in  swine,  457. 

Cook,  C.  F.,  122. 

Cook  &  Son,  W.  N.,  365. 

Cooking  feed,  470. 

Cooler  for  milk,  259. 

Cooperative  breeding,  23S;  cattle,  238; 
horses  98 ;    sheep,  404  ;    swine,   489. 

Corns,  167. 

Corsa,  W.  S.,  15. 

Cots  hog,  505. 

Cotswold  ram,  441. 

Cow,  barn,  264 ;  beef,  313 ;  dairy, 
246  ;  testing  associations,  235  ;  with 
calf  at  foot,  315. 

Creep  for  sheep,  392. 

Cribbing,  13  (see  horse). 

Crossing,  77,  90. 

Crouch  &  Son,  J.,  58. 

Croup  in  horses,  27,  36. 

Crupper,  147. 

Curb,  18,  163. 

Curb-bit,  143. 

Dairy-barn  ventilation,  265. 

Dairy  cattle,  abortion,  332  ;  Ayreshire, 
228;  baby-beef,  291;  barn,  264; 
barrenness,  332  ;  bloating,  351  ;  breed- 
ing, 227  ;  bull,  244  ;  calves  from  best 
cows,  237 ;  care  and  management, 
257 ;  care  of  bull,  263 ;  choosing, 
185  ;  choosing  dairy  bull,  244  ;  con- 
stitution, 193  ;  cooperative  breeding, 
238 ;    dehorning,   354 ;    detail   char- 


536 


INDEX 


acter,  194;  difficult  parturition, 
334;  diseases,  331;  dry  forage  for, 
217;  Dutch  Belted,  262;  eversion 
of  the  womb,  338;  feeding,  203; 
feeding  calf,  251 ;  feeding  in  lot,  289  ; 
feeding-standard,  204 ;  food-effect 
on  composition  of  milk,  210 ;  food 
requirements  for  milk,  203 ;  form, 
190  ;  forming  the  herd,  238  ;  garget, 
340 ;  general  examination,  190 ; 
grading-up,  239;  grading,  first  gen- 
eration, 240 ;  grading,  second  gen- 
eration, 241  ;  Guernsey  cow,  192  ; 
Haecker's  feeding-standard,  206 ; 
heifer  calves  from  high-producing 
dams,  240 ;  high  production,  222 
Holstein-Friesian,  205  ;  kicking,  354 
impaction,  353 ;  milk  fever,  338 
milking,  260 ;  milk-records,  229 
milk  signs,  197 ;  milk  veins,  197 
order  of  supplying  food,  212 ;  par- 
turition time,  248  ;  plan  of  breeding, 
237 ;  productive  period,  246 ;  pro- 
tecting from  flies,  215  ;  quality,  193  ; 
retained  afterbirth,  336  ;  ringing  the 
bull,  264 ;  sample  rations,  224 ; 
season  to  breed,  247 ;  selection  and 
improvement,  242 ;  silage,  218 ; 
succulent  feeds,  217;  sucking  cow, 
355 ;  summer  feeding,  215 ;  tem- 
perament, 193  ;  testing  associations, 
235  ;  tuberculosis,  343  ;  udder,  195  ; 
uniformity,  245;  watering,  213; 
winter  feeding,  216. 

Dairy  cow  (see  dairy  cattle). 

Dairy  herd,  238  ;   (see  dairy  cattle) . 

Dairy  type,  186. 

Davis  &  Son,  Frank,  329. 

Davison,  Dr.  G.  H.,  390. 

Daytholeum,  426. 

Dehorning,  354. 

De  Kol  2d,  85. 

Delane  Merino,  360,  364. 

Denmark,  85. 

Devon  bull,  344. 

Diarrhea,  173  ;   in  calves,  341 ;   in  foal, 
115;    in  lamb,  416. 

Dickinson  Merino,  360. 

Difficult  parturition,  334. 

Digestion,  44  ;    conditions  influencing, 
48. 


Digestive  organs,  45. 

Dip,  how  used,  425. 

Dipping,  frequency,  426 ;    importance, 

423  ;    self,  503  ;    sheep,  423  ;    swine, 

503. 
Dipping-vat,  424. 
Diseases  of  cattle,  331 ;    of  the  horse, 

151;    of   sheep,  439;    of  swine,  510; 

prevention,  265. 
Distemper,  177. 
Docking  lambs,  419. 
Dogs  and  goats,  377. 
Double  safety,  141. 
Drenching,  154. 
Dressing  winter  lambs,  393. 
Driving  horse,  feeding,  63. 
Drove  (see  swine). 
Dry  forage,  217. 
Dry-lot,  289. 
Dry  matter  in  food,  526. 
Dual-purpose  cow,  309. 
Dumb  jockey,  137. 
Duroc  Jersey,  swine,  474. 
Dutch  Belted  cattle,  262. 

Ear  marking  sheep,  420 ;    swine,  502. 

Eczema,  169. 

Elbows,  25;  capped,  164;  "tied  in," 
25. 

Enemas,  156. 

English  shire  horse,  35. 

Environment,  75. 

Erotas,  85. 

Escutcheon,  198. 

Eversion  of  the  womb,  338. 

Ewe,  406;  lambing  time,  411;  lamb- 
ing pens,  412 ;  method  of  mating, 
407 ;  parturition,  412 ;  pregnant, 
410  ;  productive  period,  407  ;  season 
to  breed,  407. 

Exercise  for  sheep,  387. 

Exile  of  St.  Lambert,  86. 

External  medication,  155. 

Eye,  diseases  of,  180  ;  moon-blindness, 
181 ;    sore,  417,  440. 

Fall  lambs,  396 ;    feeding,  396. 

Farmer's  cow,  309. 

Farms  for  fattening  cattle,  322. 

Farrowing  swine,  496. 

Fat,  reading,  233. 


INDEX 


537 


Fattening,  cattle,  284 ;  sheep,  388 ; 
swine,  478. 

Fecundity  {see  prolificacy). 

Feed-alley,  267. 

Feed-bunk,  323  ;  platform,  327. 

Feed-carrier,  207. 

Feed  cooking,  470  ;  digestible  nutrients, 
526;  "full,"  296;  grinding,  469; 
list,  526 ;  measures,  525 ;  mixture 
for  lambs,  392  ;  racks,  sheep,  436  ; 
soaking,  467  ;  succulent,  217 ;  weights, 
525. 

Feeders,  wintering,  282. 

Feeding  animals,  37 ;  baby-beef,  291; 
beef  cattle,  275 ;  beef  cattle  on 
pasture,  284 ;  breeding  herd,  472 ; 
cattle  for  local  market,  293  ;  capacity 
among  swine,  470 ;  capacity  in- 
creased, 284;  dairy  calf,  251  ;  dairy 
cattle,  203  ;  dairy  cattle  in  summer, 
215;  dairy  cattle  in  winter,  216; 
dry  forage,  217  ;  equipment  for  sum- 
mer, 322 ;  equipment  for  winter, 
326;  feed-bunk,  323;  the  flock, 
380;  flock  in  summer,  381 ;  flock  in 
winter,  386 ;  for  high  production, 
222;  the  heifer,  223;  horses,  56; 
grain  to  beef  cattle  on  pasture,  285 ; 
grain  to  cattle  in  lot,  289  ;  lambs, 
391,  417;  large  hog,,  479;  mare  at 
parturition,  112  ;  milking  cow,  214  ; 
mules,  67;  "off  feed,"  353;  on 
pasture,  324  ;  pigs,  500  ;  sheep,  377  ; 
sheep  in  corn  belt,  399 ;  sheep  in 
East,  399;  sheep  in  West,  398; 
silage,  218 ;  steers  in  winter,  289  ; 
succulent  feeds,  217  ;  swine,  467  ; 
young  foal,  117. 

Feeding-standard,  51 ;  for  beef  cattle, 
282  ;  for  dairy  cattle,  204 ;  for  the 
horse,  57 ;  mere  guides,  210 ;  for 
sheep,  380  ;   for  swine,  468. 

Feet,  27,  29,  35  ;  care  of,  131 ;  sheep's, 
388;  shoeing,  132. 

Fetlocks  in  horses,  26. 

Fever,  bilious,  178 ;    shipping,  178. 

Filly,  breeding,  103. 

Firing,  157. 

Fleece,  372  ;  brightness,  376  ;  condi- 
tion, 375  ;  crimp,  374  ;  density,  373  ; 
length,  373  ;  luster,  376  ;  kemp,  375  ; 


purity,  375;  quality,  373,  374; 
softness,  374  ;  soundness,  374  ;  yolk, 
376. 

Flies,  protecting  cows  from,  215. 

Flock,  feeding,  380;    (see  sheep). 

Floors,  268. 

Flushing,  407. 

Fly-blankets,  148. 

Fly-blister,  156. 

Fly-killer,  148. 

Fly-nets,  148. 

Foal,  112,  113;  care  of,  113;  feeding, 
117;  grain  for,  119;  ills,  115;  con- 
stipation, diarrhea,  navel  infection, 
116;  jack,  121;  skim-milk  for,  120; 
weaning,  119. 

Food,  37 ;  composition,  38,  526,  ash, 
39,  carbohydrates,  40,  fat,  41,  protein, 
39,  water,  39 ;  and  composition  of 
milk,  210 ;  cooking  for  horses,  49 ; 
curing,  49 ;  digestibility,  44,  526 ; 
dry  matter  to  100  pounds,  526 ; 
effects  on  flavor  in  milk,  212 ;  effect 
on  percentage  of  fat,  211 ;  effect  on 
quantity  of  milk,  212  ;  effect  of  total 
solids  in  milk,  211 ;  fermenting,  for 
horses,  49  ;  fertilizing  constituents,  in 
1000  pounds,  526  ;  functions,  41,  ash, 
42,  carbohydrates,  43,  fat,  43,  pro- 
tein, 42,  water,  41  ;  grinding,  48  ;  list, 
526  ;  nutrients,  46  ;  order  of  supply- 
ing, 57,  212  ;  preparation  for  swine, 
469 ;  requirements  for  beef,  281  ; 
requirements  for  milk,  203  ;  require- 
ments for  sheep,  379  ;  requirements 
for  swine,  468 ;  required  for  work, 
56 ;  steaming,  44 ;  use,  37 ;  used 
for  baby-beef,  292 ;    wetting,  49. 

Foot,  corns,  167 ;  cracked  hoofs,  168 ; 
lameness,  165 ;  rot  in  sheep,  440 ; 
wounds,  167. 

Forage  racks,  328. 

Fore-arms  in  horses,  25,  34. 

Fore-quarters,  in  beef  cattle,  201 ;  in 
dairy  cattle,  194 ;    in  sheep,  370. 

Foul  sheath,  180. 

Founder,  17. 

Fracture,  160. 

Fraser,  221. 

Fraser's  soiling  system,  221. 

French  coach  horse,  87. 


538 


INDEX 


French  draft  horse,  111. 
Fruit-growing,  100. 
Full  feed,  296. 

Galbraith,  Alex.,  30. 

Galloway  bull,  312. 

Galls,  163. 

Galton's  Law,  80. 

Gambetta  Wilks,  87. 

Gammon,  466. 

Garget,    in    cattle,    340 ;    sheep,    4  IS ; 

swine,  523. 
Generative  organs,  331. 
Gestation    table,    cattle,    249 ;     horse, 

108  ;    sheep,  408  ;  swine,  495. 
Gifford  &  Stockwell,  344. 
Gillis,  A.  R.,  81. 
Glista,  243. 
Glista  family,  243. 
Goats  and  dogs,  377. 
Goodwin,  John,  488. 
Goodwin,  J.  S.,  298. 
Goubaux,  10. 
Grade  dairy  herd,  239. 
Grading,  89. 
Grading-up  table,  243. 
Grain-farming,  100. 
Grass,    fattening,    284 ;     turning    to, 

285. 
Gravel,  17. 

Grinding  feed,  469  ;  food,  48. 
Grippe,  178. 

Grooming  the  horse,  127. 
Gruels  for  foal,  118. 
Guenon,  198. 
Guernsey  cow,  192. 
Gutter,  269. 

Hackney   coach   horse,    22,    79 ;     cob, 

pony,  79. 
Haecker,  206. 
Halter  training,  134. 
Hambletonian,  10,  84. 
Hame-tug,  146. 
Hampshire  sheep,  400,  488. 
Hams,  463,  466. 
Harness,    caring    for,    148 ;     cleaning, 

149;  room,  149. 
Harnessing,  141  ;    adjusting  hame-tug, 

146  ;    bit,  142  ;    breast  harness,  147  ; 

bridle,   142 ;    colt  {see  colt)  ;    fitting 


back-band,  147;  fitting  the  collar, 
145 ;    fitting  crupper,  147. 

Hartline,  Frank,  337. 

Harvesting  time,  48. 

Head,  beef  cattle,  200;  dairy  cattle, 
194 ;  horse,  23  ;  sheep,  368 ;  swine, 
459. 

Hearing,  16. 

Heart's  Delight  Farm,  418. 

Heaves,  176. 

Hechtner,  C.  S.,  312. 

Heifer  feeding,  223. 

Hengerveld  De  Kol,  86. 

Herd,  dairy,  238;  grading-up,  239; 
{see  cattle). 

Heredity,  83. 

Hereford  cow,  306. 

Hind-quarters  in  dairy  cattle,  195. 

Hinny,  125  ;    breeding,  124. 

Hitching,  double,  139;    single,  139. 

Hips  in  swine,  462. 

Hip-straps,  147. 

Hocks,  28,  36 ;  capped,  164. 

Hog-dipping  equipment,  504,  509. 

Hogs  following  beef  cattle,  295 ;  {see 
swine) . 

Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  205. 

Hood  Farm,  245. 

Hoof,  care  of,  131;  cracked,  168;  oil, 
131;  quarter  crack,  168;  rate  of 
growth,  132  ;  sand  crack,  168 ;  toe 
crack,  168;   (see  horse). 

Horned  Dorset  ram,  418. 

Horns,  in  estimating  age,  189 ;  re- 
moving, 255,  354. 

Horse,  abortion,  110;  action,  21,  32; 
American  saddler,  97 ;  Arab,  6 ; 
asthma,  176 ;  azoturia,  179 ;  bad 
mouth,  137  ;  barrenness,  109 ;  bed- 
ding, 129;  Belgian,  58;  bitting, 
137;  blankets,  130;  blemish,  14; 
bred  each  year,  96 ;  breeding,  96 ; 
breeding  two-year  filly,  103  ;  breed- 
ing stock,  99 ;  broken  wind,  176 ; 
capped  elbows,  16;  care,  127;  care 
of  teeth,  128  ;  catarrh,  174  ;  choos- 
ing, 3  ;  choosing  heavy,  29  ;  choos- 
ing light,  20  ;  clipping,  128  ;  clipped 
hair  on  legs,  128 ;  Clydesdale,  30 ; 
constipation,  174 ;  colic,  172 ;  co- 
operative breeding,  98  ;   cribbing,  15  ; 


INDEX 


539 


curb,  18 ;  defective  hearing,  16 ; 
detail  character  of  heavy  horses,  33, 
of  light  horses,  23 ;  diarrhea,  172  ; 
discharge  of  nostrils,  15 ;  diseases, 
151 ;  distemper,  177  ;  English  shire, 
35  ;  estimating  age,  7  ;  examination 
in  action,  6 ;  examination  in  stable, 
5  ;  feeding,  56  ;  feeding  brood  mare, 
65  ;  feeding  for  driving,  63  ;  feeding 
for  work,  60  ;  feeding  when  idle,  64  ; 
feet,  131;  fistulse,  16;  foal,  112; 
forging,  18  ;  for  police,  106  ;  French 
coach,  87;  French  draft,  111; 
general  appearance  in  heavy,  29,  in 
light,  21 ;  general  examination,  5 ; 
gestation  table,  period,  108 ;  good 
mouth,  136 ;  hackney  coach,  79 ; 
harnessing,  141 ;  heaves,  19,  176  ; 
"horse  company,"  99;  impaired 
vision,  16 ;  indigestion,  171 ;  in- 
fluenza, 178;  interfering,  19;  judg- 
ing, 3 ;  lameness,  158 ;  locating 
lameness,  19 ;  management,  127 ; 
mare,  103 ;  Morgan,  94 ;  number, 
96 ;  order  of  supplying  food,  57 ; 
overreaching,  18 ;  parturition  time, 
110;  Percheron,  15;  plan  of  breed- 
ing, 96;  poll-evil,  16;  quality,  22; 
regularity  in  feeding,  57  ;   ring-bone, 

17  ;  roaring,  19,  176  ;  sample  rations, 
68,  artillery,  cavalry,  colt,  draft, 
farm,  hunter  and  race  horse,  69 ; 
scouring,  173  ;  scratches,  17 ;  season 
of  year  to  breed,  104 ;  Shetland 
pony,  117;  shoeing,  132  ;  sick,  151  ; 
side-bone,  17 ;  sound,  14 ;  sound- 
ness in  breeding,  102 ;  spavin,  18 ; 
splints,  16  ;  stallion,  102  ;  stringhalt, 

18  ;  Suffolk,  74  ;  sweenied,  16  ;  tem- 
perament, 23  ;  thick-wind,  176  ; 
thoroughpin,  18 ;  training,  133 ; 
training  vicious,  141 ;  types,  19, 
heavy  and  light,  20 ;  type  to  breed, 
100 ;  uniformity  in  breeding,  101 ; 
unsound,  14 ;  unsound  hoofs,  17 ; 
unsound  knees,  16 ;  value  of  care, 
128  ;  watering,  59  ;  weight  of  heavy 
horses,  31  ;  when  mares  should  be 
tried,  107;    whistling,  176. 

Hot-house  lamb,  389. 
Hypodermic  medication,  154. 


Idle  horse,  feeding,  64. 
Impaction  in  cattle,  353. 
Improvement,  the  basis  of,  72  ;  unit  of, 

237. 
In-breeding,  92. 
Indigestion,  171. 
Individual  merit,  78. 
Influenza,  178. 

Inheritance,  83  ;  of  disease,  83. 
Ink  marking,  421. 
Interfering,  166. 
Irritants,  156. 

Jack,  125 ;  breeding,  121 ;  care  of,  124 ; 
Catalonian,  123;    foals,  121. 

Jennet,  125 ;  breeding,  121 ;  parturi- 
tion, 121. 

Jersey  bull,  245. 

Jersey  cow,  "Jacoba  Irene,"  250. 

Jersey  Red  hog,  474. 

Jerusalem  artichoke,  475. 

Johanna,  85. 

Jordan,  Dr.,  276. 

Jowls,  459. 

Judging,  cattle,  185  ;  beef  cattle,  198  , 
dairy  cow,  189  ;  faculties,  3  ;  horse, 
3 ;  lard-hogs,  455 ;  sheep,  359 ; 
swine,  453. 

Kale,  386. 

Kansas  Agricultural  College,  105. 

Kemp,  375. 

Kicking  cow,  354. 

Kick-strap,  140. 

Knee,  26,  34;  bucked,  463;  capped,  164. 

Lambing  time,  411. 

Lambs,  413 ;  care,  417 ;  castrating, 
419  ;  chilled,  414  ;  constipation,  416  ; 
diarrhea,  416  ;  disowned,  415  ;  dock- 
ing, 419;  dressing,  393;  fall,  396; 
feeding,  391,  417;  first  meal,  413; 
full  feed,  397 ;  ills  416,  constipation 
416,  diarrhea  416,  pinning  416,  sore 
eyes  417,  sore  mouth  417 ;  mark- 
ing, 420 ;  spring,  396 ;  teaching  to 
drink,  414 ;  weaning,  417 ;  winter, 
388,  398. 

Lameness,  158 ;  blood-spavin,  161 
bog-spavin,  161  ;  bone-spavin,  158 
bony  enlargements,  158 ;   curb,  163 


540 


INDEX 


fractures,  160 ;  foot,  165 ;  interfer- 
ing, 166 ;  overreaching,  166 ;  ring- 
bones, 158 ;  shoulder,  162 ;  side- 
bones,  158 ;  splints,  158 ;  sprains, 
161 ;  sweeny  shoulder,  162 ; 
thoroughpin,  161 ;    wind-galls,  161. 

Laminitis,  17. 

Lampas,  170. 

Lard-hog,  winter  feeding,  481. 

Lard  type,  453. 

Large  Yorkshire  swine,  465. 

"Lean  to,"  153. 

Leet,  Chas.  &  Jas.,  384. 

Leg  of  horse,  2S ;  of  mutton,  370 ;  in 
swine,  463. 

Leg  of  mutton,  370. 

Lehman  &  Wolff,  57. 

Leicester  ewe,  437. 

Lice,  440  ;  swine,  520. 

Lincoln  sheep,  449. 

Line-breeding,  90. 

Liniments,  155. 

Litter-carrier,  269. 

Loin  in  beef  cattle,  278 ;   in  horses,  27. 

Long-horn  cattle,  70. 

Lord  Netherland  De  Kol,  86. 

Lot,  327;  dry,  289;  feeding,  289; 
hog,  509  ;  paving,  327  ;  quarantine, 
510 ;  sheep,  438. 

Machines,  milking,  260. 

Maintenance  rations,  50. 

Management,  beef  cattle,  320 ;  dairy 
cattle,  257  ;  horses,  127  ;  sheep,  422  ; 
swine,  503. 

Mangels  for  sheep,  387. 

Mangers,  267. 

Maplewood,  79. 

Mare,  103;  abortion,  110;  barren- 
ness, 109 ;  brood,  65 ;  colostrum 
milk  for  foals,  113;  feeding,  65; 
parturition  time,  110;  at  weaning 
time,  120  ;  when  to  try  to  breed,  107. 

Marketable  condition,  297. 

Market  condition  of  steers,  299 ;  local, 
293. 

Market-gardening,  100. 

Marshall,  C,  360. 

Mating,  81 ;   sheep,  407. 

May  &  Otis,  310. 

Mayes'  "Diseases  of  Animals,"  151. 


Measure  of  feed,  525. 
Medication,  154 ;  bathing,  156 ;  blis- 
ters, fly  and  red,  156  ;  drenching,  154; 
enemas,  156 ;  external,  155 ;  firing 
line  and  point,  157 ;  hypodermic, 
154  ;  liniments,  155  ;  lotions,  155  ; 
ointments,  155 ;  plasters,  157 ;  poul- 
tices, 155. 

Medicine,  administering,  154. 

Merino,  American,  375  ;  A  type,  361 ; 
B  type,  365  ;  C  type,  365  ;  Delaine, 
360;    ram,  364. 

Milk,  colostrum,  113;  cooling,  259; 
effect  of  food  on  composition,  210 ; 
effect  of  food  on  fat,  211 ;  effect  of 
food  on  quantity,  212 ;  effect  of 
total  solids,  211;  for  calf,  253;  for 
foal,  118  ;  food  and  flavor,  212  ;  food 
requirements  for,  203  ;  reading  per- 
centage fat,  233  ;  sampling,  232  ; 
sanitary,  257 ;  signs  of  milking  ca- 
pacity, 197 ;  skim-milk  for  calves, 
253 ;  substitutes  for  calves,  255 ; 
testing  for  fat,  232  ;  using  acid,  233  ; 
whirling  bottles,  233. 

Milk-cooler,  260. 

Milk-fever,  dairy  cattle,  338 ;  mare, 
111;  sheep,  448;    swine,  523. 

Milk-house,  259. 

Milking,  260. 

Milking-machines,  260. 

Milk-mirror,  198. 

Milk-oil,  426. 

Milk-records,  229;  keeping,  230; 
record-sheet,  231 ;    value,  232. 

Milk-signs,  197. 

Milk-veins,  197. 

Moon-blindness,  181. 

Morgan  horse,  94. 

Mouth,  ailments  of,  164 ;  importance 
of  a  good  one,  136 ;  lampas,  170 ; 
sore,  417 ;    sore,  swine,  522. 

Moyer,  H.  A.,  205. 

Mud  fever,  169. 

Mules,  67,  124,  125;  breeding,  124; 
feeding,  67. 

Mustard  plaster,  157. 

Mutton,  leg  of,  370. 

Naptholeum,  426. 
National  Merino,  360. 


INDEX 


541 


National  Stockman  and  Farmer,  67. 

Navel  infection,  116. 

Navicular  disease,  17. 

Nock  sore,  163. 

Nets,  fly,  148. 

Nutrients,  46. 

Nutritive-ratio,  52. 

Oats,  386. 

Oil,  neatsfoot,  149. 

Ointments,  155. 

Old  Fanny  Cook,  86. 

Old  Granny,  86. 

Onward,  87. 

Otis  &  May,  310. 

Outdoor  blanket,  131. 

Over-check  rein,  use  of,  144. 

Overreaching,  166. 

Oxford  sheep,  409. 

Pails,  milk,  260. 

Palatability,  48. 

Parasites,  external,  440 ;  internal, 
441. 

Parents,  relative  influence,  88. 

Parnell,  G.  W.,  425. 

Parturition,  334  ;  apoplexy,  339  ;  diffi- 
cult in  cattle,  334  ;  difficult  in  horse, 
112;  difficult  in  sheep,  412;  in  jen- 
nets, 121 ;  time  in  cows,  248  ;  time  in 
mares,  110;  time  in  sheep,  411; 
time  in  swine,  496. 

Parturition  fever,  339;  cattle,  339; 
sheep,  448 ;  swine,  523. 

Pasterns  in  light  horses,  26,  28 ;  in 
heavy  horses,  34. 

Pastures,  286,  322,  382;  caring  for, 
287 ;  change  for  sheep,  383 ;  for 
swine,  475 ;  sown  for  sheep,  385 ; 
steers  at,  288 ;  turning  sheep,  382 ; 
turning  to,  285. 

Paul  Beets  De  Kol,  86. 

Paving  feed  lot,  327. 

Pedigree,  78. 

Pens,  lambing,  412. 

Percheron  horse,  15  ;  why  large,  71. 

Permanent  pastures,  286. 

Pigs,  498 ;  after  weaning,  501 ;  care 
of,  496 ;  castrating,  501 ;  feeding, 
500  ;  first  meal,  498  ;  marking,  501 ; 
ills,    499,    digestive    disorders,    499, 


scours  500,  thumps  500 ;   sow  eating, 

497 ;  weaning,  500. 
Pink-eye,  181. 
Pinning  in  sheep,  416. 
Platform  for  feed-bunks,  327. 
Plumb,  C.  S.,  476. 
Pocahontas,  86. 
Poland  China  swine,  455,  457. 
Pork  chop,  461  ;  roast,  461. 
Porterhouse  steak,  278. 
Poultices,  155 ;    bran,  bread  and  milk, 

flaxseed  meal,  mashed  boiled  turnips,, 

156. 
Prepotency,  84  ;    breed,  84  ;    race,  84. 
Prime  of  rib,  278. 
Productive  rations,  50. 
Prolificacy,  86. 
Pumpkins,  for  sheep,  386 ;    for  swine, 

476. 

Quality,  in  light  horses,  22,  23 ;  in 
heavy  horses,  33  ;  in  beef  cattle,  199  ; 
in  dairy  cattle,  193  ;  in  sheep,  367 ; 
in  swine,  457. 

Quarantine  lot,  510. 

Quarter-cracks,  17,  132,  168. 

Quick  &  Bowen,  214. 

Quitter,  17. 

Racks,  328,  398. 

Ram,  406 ;   managing,  410. 

Rambouillet,  364  ;    ram,  381. 

Ramsdell,  J.  A.  P.,  6. 

Ratio,     method     of     calculating,     52 
nutritive,  52. 

Ration,  balanced,  51 ;    for  sheep,  386 
for  swine,  484 ;  sample,  for  horse,  68 

Rations,  maintenance,  50  ;  productive 
50  ;  sample,  68  ;  sample,  beef  cattle 
300-304 ;  sample  for  dairy  cattle 
224 ;  sample  for  sheep,  401 ;  sample 
for  swine,  484. 

Records,  229 ;  keeping,  230 ;  of  per- 
formance, 236. 

Red-blister,  156. 

Red  polled  bull,  329. 

Rein,  144 ;    over-check,  side,  144. 

Retained  afterbirth,  336. 

Reversion,  82. 

Ribs  in  horses,  27. 

Ring-bones,  158. 


542 


INDEX 


Ringing  swine,  474. 

Roaring,  176. 

Roots,  218 ;    for  dairy  cattle,  218 ;    for 

sheep,  387 ;    for  swine,  475. 
Ross  &  Carpenter,  277. 
Rotation  pastures,  286. 
Rump,  in  sheep,  370 ;   in  swine,  462. 
Rye,  386. 

Saddle  horse,  97;  five-gaited,  three- 
gaited,  97. 

Salt,  60,  379;  for  beef  cattle,  325; 
for  horses,  60 ;    for  swine,  472. 

Sand  cracks,  17,  168. 

Sanitary  milk,  257  ;  cow  stable,  258 ; 
milking,  260;    utensils,  260. 

Scab,  423,  440. 

Schmit-Kolding  sterile-air  outfit,  339. 

Score  card,  value,  5. 

Scouring,  173. 

Scours  in  calves,  341;  colts,  115; 
sheep,  416;    swine,  521. 

Scratches,  168. 

Season  of  the  year  to  breed  beef  cattle, 
313  ;  dairy  cattle,  247  ;  horses,  104  ; 
sheep,  407  ;    swine,  492. 

Sedgley  Farms,  252. 

Seedy  toe,  17. 

Selection,  77. 

Self-feeder,  325. 

Shade,  for  beef  cattle,  325 ;  for  sheep, 
384;    for  swine,  508. 

Shearing  sheep  by  hand,  428  ;  by  ma- 
chinery, 429. 

Shearing,  sheep,  427 ;  tying  wool, 
433  ;  when  to  shear,  428  ;  wool-box, 
433. 

Sheath,  foul,  180. 

Shed,  covered,  258  ;   cattle  feeding,  326. 

Shed-shaped  hog  house,  508. 

Sheep,  359  ;  barns,  433  ;  bedding,  388, 
436  ;  bloating,  446  ;  breeding,  403  ; 
breeding  ewes,  407 ;  caked  udder, 
448;  care,  422;  care  of  feet,  388; 
castrating  lambs,  419  ;  catching  and 
holding,  360 ;  change  of  pasture, 
383;  Cheviot,  425;  chilled  lamb, 
414  :  choosing  breeding  stock,  404  ; 
condition  and  weight,  367 ;  consti- 
pation, 447 ;  constitutional  vigor, 
367  ;    Cotswold  ram,  441  ;    Delaine 


Merino,  360  ;   detail  characters,  368  ; 
difficult   parturition,   412 ;     dipping, 
423  ;    diseases,  439  ;   disowned  lamb, 
415  ;  docking  lambs,  419  ;  dogs,  377  ; 
dressing   winter   lambs,    393 ;     exer- 
cise, 387  ;    estimating  age,  361 ;    ewe 
flock,  406  ;    fall  lambs,  396  ;    fatten- 
ing, 388  ;    feeding,  377  ;    feeding  the 
flock,  380 ;   feeding  flock  in  summer, 
381 ;    feeding  flock  in  winter,   386 
feeding  lambs,  391 ;    feeding  in  corn 
belt,    399;     feeding    in    East,    399 
feeding  in   West,   398 ;    feed  racks 
436;     fine-wool,    363;     fleece,    372 
flock  in  winter,  386 ;    flushing,  407 
food    requirements,    379 ;     foot   rot 
440  ;  form,  366  ;  general  appearance 
366 ;    garget,  448 ;  gestation,  table 
408  ;    Hampshire,  400  ;    holding  and 
catching,  360  ;   hot-house  lamb,  388 
judging,    359 ;     lambs,    413 ;     lamb 
ills,  416;    lambs  on  full  feed,  397 
lambing   pens,  412 ;    lambing  time 
411;    Leicester  ewe,  437;    lice,  440 
Lincoln,  449  ;  lot,  438  ;  management 
422 ;      managing     the     ram,     410 
marking,  421  ;   mating,  407  ;   method 
of  examination,  359 ;    mutton  type 
365  ;   Oxford,  409  ;  overfeeding,  447 
pasture,  382  ;   plan  of  breeding,  404 
productive     period,     407 ;      quality 
367;    feeding  rack,  398;    ram.  406 
ration,    386 ;     roots,    387 ;     sample 
rations.      401 ;       scab,      423,      440 
season   to   breed,   407 ;     shade,   384 
385 ;      shearing,     427 ;      Shropshire 
342;     sick,   439;     silage,   387;     sore 
eyes,  440 ;    sore  teats,  440 ;    South- 
down,    384 ;      spring     lambs,     396 ; 
stomach-worm,   446  ;    tagging,   383  ; 
tape-worms,  444  ;  tick,  426  ;  turning 
to   pasture,   382;     types,   363,   405; 
uniformity,  368,  405  ;   washing,  427  ; 
weaning  lambs,  417 ;    winter  lambs, 
398  ;    Wolff-Lehman  standards,  380. 

Shetland  pony,  117;   why  small,  71. 

Shields  on  swine,  454. 

Shipping  beef  cattle,  299. 

Shoe-boil,  165. 

Shoe,  fitting,  133. 

Shoeing,  132. 


INDEX 


543 


Shorthorn  bull,  277. 

Shoulders,  in  horses,  25,  34 ;  sores, 
163  ;  in  sheep,  368 ;  in  bacon-hogs, 
464;    in  lard-hogs,  461. 

Shoulder-lameness,  162. 

Shropshire  sheep,  392  ;  ram,  390. 

Side-bones,  158. 

Side-craek,  132. 

Side-rein,  use  of,  144. 

Sides  in  bacon-hogs,  465  ;  in  lard-hogs, 
461. 

Sight  impaired,  16,  180. 

Silage,  218;  for  cattle,  218;  for  sheep, 
387. 

Silo,  270 ;  construction,  273 ;  filling, 
272 ;  size,  271 ;  table  showing  ca- 
pacity, 272. 

Sirloin  steak,  278. 

Sisson,  L.  P.,  352. 

Skim-milk  for  beef  calf,  318 ;  for  dairy 
calf,  253  ;  for  foal,  120 ;  for  sheep, 
414  ;  for  swine,  484. 

Sling,  to  support  sick  animals,  152. 

Small  Yorkshires.  499. 

Snyder  &  Sons,  H.  D.,  66. 

Soaking  feed,  469. 

Soap,  castile,  149. 

Soiling,  218;  examples  220,  cattle  220, 
sheep  386,  swine  481. 

Soundness,  in  breeding,  102  ;  in  horses, 
14. 

Southdown  sheep,  384. 

Sows,  491 ;  after  farrowing,  497  ;  eat- 
ing pigs,  497  ;  feeding  summer,  472  . 
winter,  477 ;  pregnant,  494 ;  pro- 
ductive period,  492  ;  season  to  breed, 
492. 

Spavin,  18 ;    bog,  bone  and  occult,  18. 

Speedy  cuts,  166. 

Splints,  158. 

Sprains,  161. 

Spring  lambs,  396 ;  feeding,  396 ; 
foundation  stock,  396 ;  marketing, 
396. 

Stable-blankets,  130. 

Stable-cow,  258. 

Stable-yard,  258. 

Staley,  W.  M.,  375. 

Stallion,  102 ;    securing,  98. 

Stanchion,  267. 

Standard-feeding,  51. 


Standard  Merino,  360. 

Steer,  fat,  202  ;    indications  when  fat, 
299. 

Steers  at  pasture,  288. 

Sterility,  88. 

St.  Lambert,  85. 

Stockers,  wintering,  282. 

Stockwell  &  Gifford,  344. 

Stoke  Pogis,  85. 

Stomach,  45  ;  honeycomb,  many-plies, 
paunch,  rennet,  45. 

Stomach-worm,  440. 

Strainers,  milk,  260. 

Strangles,  177. 

Stringhalt,  18. 

Strongylus  contortus,  440. 

Stud  (see  horses). 

Succulent  feeds,  217  ;  cattle,  217  ;  sheep, 
386 ;  swine,  480. 

Sucking  cow,  355. 

Suffolk  ewe,  411. 

Suffolk  horse,  74. 

Sulfuric  acid,  233. 

Sweeny  shoulder,  162. 

Swine,  after  weaning,  501 ;  age,  454  ; 
bacon  type,  454 ;  Berkshire,  463 ; 
boar,  440  ;  breeding,  487  ;  breeding 
crate,  493  ;  care,  503  ;  care  of  pigs, 
496;  care  of  tubercular  herd,  518; 
castrating  pigs,  501 ;  Cheshire,  496  ; 
Chester  White,  479  ;  chicken  eating, 
524;  cholera,  511;  condition,  456; 
constipation,  521  ;  constitution,  457  ; 
choosing  lard-hog,  455;  cooking  feed, 
470  ;  detail  characters,  459  ;  dipping, 
503;  diseases,  510;  Duroc  Jersey, 
474 ;  fattening,  478 ;  farrowing 
time,  496 ;  feeding,  467 ;  feeding 
breeding  herd,  472  ;  feeding  capacity, 
470 ;  feeding  for  lard,  479,  481  ; 
feeding  old  sow,  478 ;  feeding  pigs, 
500  ;  feeding  standards,  468  ;  feed- 
ing in  summer,  472,  479  ;  feeding  in 
winter,  477 ;  feeding  young  sow 
478  ;  food  requirements,  468  ;  form 
456  ;  garget,  523  ;  giving  feed,  471 
general  appearance  of  lard-hog,  456 
grinding  feed,  469  ;  Hampshire,  488 
house,  A-shaped,  506 ;  house,  shed- 
shaped,  507  ;  individual  hog  house, 
505;     lard    type,    453;     lice,    520; 


544 


INDEX 


judging,  453 ;  lot,  509 ;  manage- 
ment, 503 ;  marking,  501 ;  method 
of  mating,  492 ;  pasture,  475 ; 
plague,  517  ;  plan  of  breeding,  487  ; 
pig  ills  499,  constipation  521, 
scours  521,  thumps  522;  Poland 
China,  457  ;  pregnant  sow,  494  ;  pro- 
ductive period,  492  ;  pumpkins,  476  ; 
quality,  457 ;  quarantine  lot,  510 ; 
shelter,  504 ;  removing  tusks,  523  ; 
ringing,  474 ;  rooting,  474 ;  roots, 
475  ;  salt,  472  ;  sample  rations,  484  ; 
scours,  521 ;  season  to  breed,  492  ; 
selecting  breeding  stock,  489 ;  self- 
dipping  vat,  503 ;  skim-milk  for, 
480  ;  soaking  feed,  467  ;  sore  mouth, 
522 ;  soiling  for,  473  ;  sows,  491 ; 
sow  after  farrowing,  497  ;  sow  eating 
pigs,  497  ;  Tamworth,  519  ;  thumps, 
522  ;  types,  453,  489  ;  tuberculosis, 
517  ;  uniformity,  458,  490  ;  wallows, 
509 ,  self-dipping,  504 ;  water  for, 
472 ;  weaning  pigs,  500 ;  weight, 
456 ;  worms,  519. 
Syringe,  345. 

Taenia  expansa,  444. 

Tagging  sheep,  383. 

Tamworth  swine,  519 ;    sow,  515. 

Tanks,  water,  328. 

Tape-worms,  444. 

Teaching  the  colt,  133. 

Teams,  matching,  4. 

Teats,  sore,  440. 

Teeth,  abnormal,  170 :  bishoping,  14 ; 
broken,  170  ;  of  cattle,  187  ;  care  of, 
128 ;  decayed,  14,  170 ;  diseased, 
170  ;  of  horse,  8  ;  irregularities,  13  ; 
sheep,  362;   split,  170;  ulcered,  170. 

Temperament,  in  dairy  cattle,  193 ;  in 
horses,  23. 

Testing  milk,  232. 

Thermometer,  346. 

Thick  wind,  176. 

Thigh  in  horses,  27,  36. 

Thigh-ovals  in  cows,  198. 

Thoroughpin,  18,  161. 

Throat  latch,  144. 

Thrush,  17. 

Thumps,  522. 

Tick,  sheep,  426. 


Toe-crack,  132,  168. 

Tom  Corwin  2d,  85. 

Tongue-lolling  bit,  143. 

Training  the  horse,  133. 

Training,  cart,  139 ;  to  harness,  137 ; 
hitching  double,  139 ;  hitching 
single,  139;  kick  strap,  140;  to  lead, 
134  ;  to  mount,  140  ;  vicious  horses, 
141. 

Trees,  shade,  325 ;  cattle,  325 ;  sheep, 
384. 

Trocar  and  canula,  352. 

Tuberculosis,  343,  345 ;  Bang  method 
of  eradicating,  350 ;  eradication, 
350 ;  directions  for  making  tuber- 
culin test,  346  ;  methods  of  infection, 
343 ;  prevention,  349 ;  retesting, 
349 ;  spread,  517  ;  in  swine,  517 ; 
testing  outfit,  345 ;  tuberculin,  test, 
345. 

Tubers,  218;    sheep,  387;    swine,  475. 

Turnips,  386. 

Tusks,  removing,  523. 

Udder,    195 ;    caked,   in    cattle,     339 ; 

caked,    in    sheep,    448 ;    garget    in 

cattle,   340 ;     garget  in   sheep,   448 ; 

garget    in    swine,    523 ;     milk-fever, 

338. 
Uniformity,    beef    cattle,    310 ;     dairy 

cattle,  345  ;   horse,  101 :    sheep,  405  ; 

swine,  490. 
Unsoundness,  14. 

Variation,  72 ;  causes  of  75,  crossing 
77,  environment  75,  climate,  75, 
care,  76,  food,  76  ;  kinds  of,  73,  func- 
tional, qualitative  and  quantitative, 
73 ;  importance,  72. 

Vaseline,  346. 

Vat,  dipping,  424  ;  dipping  swine,  503  ; 
self-dipping  swine,  503. 

Ventilation,  265,  266 ;  King's  system, 
266  ;  sheep  barns,  434  ;  window,  268. 

Vicious  horses,  141. 

Victoria  sow,  482. 

Vision  impaired,  16. 

Wallace,  188. 

Wallows,  swine,  504,  509. 

Water-device,  270. 


INDEX 


545 


Watering  beef  cattle,   325;  the  horse, 

59;    the   milking    cow,   213;    sheep, 

427;    swine,  472. 
Waters,  326. 
Water-tanks,  328. 
Weaning,   the   calf,    beef,   317;   dairy, 

252;    the  foal,  119;    the  lamb,  417; 

the  pig,  500. 
Weight,  of  feed,  525  ;  of  horses,  31 ;  of 

sheep,  367  ;  of  swine,  456. 
Whistling,  176. 

Wind,  thick,  176 ;    unsound,  19. 
Wind-galls,  161. 
Windows,  269. 
Wing,  220. 

Wing's  soiling  system,  220. 
Wintering  feeders,  282  ;    stockers,  282. 
Winter    lambs,     398 ;      crating,     395 ; 


dressing,     393 ;      foundation     stock, 

389  ;    packing,  395  ;    shipping,  395  ; 

winter  quarters,  391. 
Wolff  &  Lehman,  57. 
Womb  eversion,  338. 
Wool-box,  433. 

Wool,  sacks,  433  ;   tying,  433. 
Work,  food  required  for,  56. 
Work   horse,    feeding,    60 ;     grooming, 

127 ;  watering,  59. 
Worms,    prevention,    519 ;     in    sheep, 

440;     in    swine,    519;      treatment, 

sheep,  442  ;    swine,  519. 
Wounds,  177. 

Yard,  stable,  258. 

Zenoleum,  426. 


'TPHE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
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On  Selection  of  Land,  etc. 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmstead $i  50 

On  Tillage,  etc. 

F.  H.  King's  The  Soil 1  50 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Fertility  of  the  Land 1  50 

F.  H.  King's  Irrigation  and  Drainage    .......  1  50 

Edward  B.  Voorhees'  Fertilizers     ........  1  25 

Edward  B.  Voorhees'  Forage  Crops        .         .         .                  .         .         .  1  50 

J.  A.  Widtsoe's  Dry  Farming 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Principles  of  Agriculture 1  25 

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E.  C.  Lodeman's  The  Spraying  of  Plants        .         .         .         .         .         .  1  25 

On  Garden- Making 

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L.  H.  Bailey's  Vegetable-Gardening      .......  1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Forcing  Book I  25 

On  Fruit-Growing,  etc. 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Nursery  Book           ........  I  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Fruit-Growing 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Pruning-Book 1  50 

F.  W.  Card's  Bush  Fruits 1  50 

On  the  Care  of  Live-stock 

Nelson  S.  Mayo's  The  Diseases  of  Animals 1  50 

W.  H.  Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals 1  50 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Horse 1  25 

George  C.  Watson's  Farm  Poultry 1  25 

On  Dairy  Work,  Farm  Chemistry,  etc. 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  Its  Products 1  50 

J.  G.  Lipman's  Bacteria  and  Country  Life      .         .         .         .         .         .  1  50 

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